The Nazi regime to 1939 content Flashcards
The Night of the Long Knives
The Night of the Long Knives, which occurred between June 30” and July 294 4934, was Hitler’s purge
of his own party whereby hundreds of Nazis were assassinated on the grounds that they may potentially
be threats to Hitler’s authority in the future. There were officially 85 fatalities, however many believe this to
be a gross underestimation, with the total killed actually reaching upwards of 200 people (some have even
estimated 400, 700, or even 1,000 people!). That is only counting those who died; the numbers rise when
considering the thousands of those who were incapacitated by arrest. Most of those who were killed where
assassinated by the SS or the Gestapo.
The leaders of the SA were one of the most targeted groups during the Night of the Long Knives, in
particular Ernst R6hm (see page 55 for more on him). This was due to the fact that not only were they
an especially powerful force within Germany, but also because Hitler was worried that many members had
taken his early Nazi propaganda emphasising the more socialist aspect of their ideology (namely workers’
rights) too seriously, as he now wished to suspend many of these workers’ liberties. Furthermore, as Hitler
wished to gain the support of the army to secure a position of Presidency once Hindenburg died, he needed
to give in to the army’s demands to limit the power of the SA. The Army said that they would support Hitler’s
ascension to the Presidency, combining the office of the Chancellor and the President, if Hitler in return
suppressed Réhm’s plans for the growth of the SA, and accepted the Army’s position as the sole armed
force in the state. The assassination of R6hm was so significant that in Germany the Night of the Long
Knives is often referred to as the R6hm-Putsch.
Death of President Hindenburg
The death of President Paul von Hindenburg on August 2” 1934 was significant, as it allowed Hitler, with
the support of the German Army, to finally accept the role of President, and combine it with the role of
Chancellor. Later that month, Hitler abolished the office of the President entirely, declaring himself the
Fihrer of Germany and the Third Reich. Though he had cultivated virtually dictatorial powers over the
past two years, this was the final nail in the coffin — there was no arguing it now, Hitler was the dictator of
Germany, with no legal or constitutional limits to his power.
The Nature of Nazi Ideology
The core tenants of Nazism were outlined in the 25 points of the Nazi Party (drafted 1920) and within Hitler’s memoir, Mein Kampf (1924). Essentially, Nazism is as Hitler does, and in many ways the ideology was a reflection of the beliefs of its leader.
The main components of Nazi ideology include:
- Nationalism and a strong Germany
- The concept of Fuhrer and totalitarianism
- The acceptance of Social Darwinism and racialism
- Lebensraum or ‘living space’ (expansionism)
- Autarky and economic sovereignty
- Traditional conservative values
Nationalism
Not all nationalism is Nazism, but all Nazism is nationalism. Nationalism is defined as the intense (and as
many believe, irrational) devotion and patriotism towards a nation (most likely your own), supported by
the belief in the nation and its people’s superiority in comparison to other nations and peoples. Nationalism
is itself an ideology with an influence spreading far beyond just Nazi Germany, and still holds political and
social significance today.
Nazism was an extreme form of nationalism which promoted the interests of the state over the interests (and
the lives) of individuals. This position was articulated by Hitler, when he suggested that “it is thus necessary
that the individual should finally come to realise that his own ego is of no importance in comparison with the
existence of the nation, that the position of the individual is conditioned solely by the interests of the nation
as a whole.” Nazism was concerned with safeguarding German interests, at the exclusion of all else, and
focused on reinvigorating the economy and achieving stability and self-sufficiency, rebuilding the German
military and providing for its citizens. This intense interest in the state left little room for other concerns,
and even less for the concerns of other nations — the Nazi Party had no diplomatic intentions, or aims to
improve relations with other national or international bodies, in particular those who had forced upon them
the disastrous Treaty of Versailles. If it was deemed counter to Germany’s interests, then any treaties,
negotiations, policies, and legislations were ignored, sometimes rather blatantly.
The Fuhrer
Nazism is a totalitarian ideology, meaning that it supported and aimed for a system of total government control. The Nazis aimed to implement a governmental system which exhibited extensive state control, as they believed that that was the only way for a government to function effectively. Given the problems with the Weimar Republic’s proportional representation, it is unsurprising that many people in Germany accepted this view, despite how crazy the idea of accepting, let alone supporting, an authoritarian system may seem today.
This led to the development of the Fuhrer, a leader, or guide, who held all political authority and sovereignty, having the power to make important decisions for the people on their behalf. The Fuhrerprinzip (the leader’s principle) advised the central basis of the political pawer in the governmental structures of the Third Reich, and essentially meant that the words of the Fuhrer were above the law, meaning that government policies
and positions were to reflect that of their leader.
Hitler was the only person to ever hold this position. On the day of President Hindenburg’s passing, Hitler and his cabinet decreed that the office
of the president and the Chancellor were to be merged. Thus, as Hitler was Chancellor at the time, he assumed the powers of the President as well
without being officially elected into office. Finally, Hitler had assumed absolute power of the Reichstag, and beyond. Over time, Hiter’s position as the Fuhrer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Chancellor)
became more than just one of political significance, taking on a high degree of social significance as well. He was not just the Fuhrer of the Reichstag, but of the German state and its people. The Fuhrer
represented hope and guidance for a country that had lost its way, and lost its prestige.
Different variations of the title emerged, such as:
+ Fihrer des deutschen Reiches und Volkes (Leader of the German Realm and People)
= Soldiers had to swear allegiance to Hill as ths tite.
+ Fhrer des Grodeutschen (Leader of the Greater German Realm)
+ Fer der Nation (Leader of the Nation)
+ Germanischer Fuhrer (Germanic Fuhrer)
However, overtime, the simple der Fihrer (the Leader) became the most common variation ofthe tite,
Beyond the Fuhrer, all other political parties, organisations, and groups other than the Nazi Party were banned, and groups that held a level of political influence, such as workers unions and religious institutions were also banned, or at the very least restricted. Furthermore, the governmental structures that did exist became increasingly less democratic, and more authoritarian. For example, local councils elected by the
people were replaced with mayors appointed by the Nazi Party. The same can be said of school boards, replaced with appointed headmasters, and workers unions, replaced with appointed leaders by the state.
Eventually, virtually no activity or organisation in Germany existed that was truly Independent - everything
was connected to the Fuhrer and his party in some way. Civil liberties and individual rights and freedoms were also perceived to be irrelevant to the interests of the state, and thus were often restricted under the totalitarian Nazi regime. The Nazi Government regulated not only the political and economic sphere, but
also the social sphere as well, with the daily lives of its citizens co-ordinated and shaped by Nazi policy. This led to strict and rampant censorship of the media and other institutions, the management of education, and the use of propaganda.
Social Darwinism
Though believers may suggest that Social Darwinism is a science, it is anything but scientific. Rather, it is racist and ethnocentric pseudoscience used to justify imperialism and the subjugation of inferior races. Social Darwinism is the theory that different groups of humans (mainly different races) are subject
to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and other animals. According to Charles Darwin,
mutations create variation amongst populations of plants or animals, which can either be favourable (i.e.
aiding in the survival and quality of life of that organism), or unfavourable.
Proponents of Social Darwinism bastardised this legitimate scientific theory by suggesting that just like organisms in nature, groups of peoples, along with their customs, traditions, and cultures, were also subject to this evolutionary process. Classifying humanity into different races based on skin colour and other
generalised physical characteristics, Social Darwinism believed that ‘inferior’ races and their cultures would,
land should, die out, whereas races of supposed strength (ie. white people) remain, and thrive. Social
Darwinism was used to justify Western Imperialism throughout the world
According to Nazism, which was greatly influenced by the theory of Social Darwinism, inferior cultures and
civlisations (untermensch inferior men) included but was not limited to: Jews, Slavs, Romani, and black
people. In contrast, the Nazis considered Aryans (ie. Germans with Nordic heritage, white skin, blond ha,
And blue eyes) to be the ‘master race’ of Europe, as they were, according to Nazi racial theory, physicaly
and intellectually superior.
Thus, the notion of Social Darwinism justited not only febensraum (which we shall explore in the next
section), but algo the horrfic treatment and vilification of non-Aryan groups and individuals, in particular
the Holocaust, as they were, according to the Nazis’ interpretation of Social Darwinism, ‘subhuman’ It was
also used to justly the practice of eugenics.
Volksgemeinschaft
Volksgemeinschaft translates to ‘people’s community’, and was a core aspect (on the surface) of German
nationalism. It was the belief that all Germans should unite and work together to reduce inequality, and the
differences between the standards of living and wealth of the difference classes. | say that it was ‘on the
surface’ because this was never an actual concern of the Nazi Party; however, they painted the illusion that
it was something that they strived for in Nazi propaganda as a way to promote unity within the movement
and encourage members from all sectors of society to support and join the Nazi Party.
Lebensraum
Lebensraum, which translates to ‘living space,’ was the expansionist desire of the Nazis to spread into
other countries in order to provide greater room for the growing Germanic race. It is closely tied to Social
Darwinism and the belief that certain groups were inferior to the Aryan Germans — in particularly the Jews
and the Romani. These groups were perceived to be dominating space that could be used for the Germans,
and were thus stripped of their possessions, many then being pushed into ghettos and concentration camps.
Lebensraum was used to justify German colonialism, with this ‘living space’ seized from many countries in
Eastern Europe such as Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Russia — in every instance forcefully.
In practice, one of the ways lebensraum was manifested was The Nazi Generalplan Ost policy, which
stipulated that almost all of the native populations of Eastern Europe needed to be permanently removed,
either through deportation (to Siberia), execution, or enslavement.
Autarky
Autarky is actually not a fancy German word, but instead, is derived from Greek, meaning “self-sufficiency.”
It is an economic term used universally, however it was particularly important for the Germans. Economic
self-sufficiency means that a nation does not require outside assistance or resources in order to survive.
Even during World War |, self-sufficiency proved to be a major challenge for the Germans saddled with the
British Naval Blockade on all importation. Under economics minister Hjallmar Schacht, the Nazi Govern-
ment strived to reach a state of economic self-sufficiency, however, it was not immediately achieved. The
Nazis continued to pursue international trade, but this was not purely for economic reasons, and was more
a consequence of another aim of the Nazi Party: to escape the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Through
achieving autarky, the Nazis also sought the creation of more jobs for unemployed Germans, as they would
look domestically for resources, goods, and services, rather than abroad.
Conservatism
The Nazis were strong proponents of traditional values, in particular traditional German values, with Hitler suggesting that “The National Government will preserve and defend those basic principles on which our nation has been built. It regards Christianity as the foundation of our national morality, and the family as the basis of national life.”
Though religion was placed below Nazi ideology, Hitler was in favour of what he referred to as Positive Christianity. The non-denominational movement mixed various elements of Nazi ideology (mainly ideas of racial purity) with Christianity.
For example, Positive Christianity sought to disassociate the Christian faith with its Semitic origins.
Though the movement did eventually fail it still further perpetuated the notion that, publicly, Hitler and the Nazis were supportive of Christianity. How-
ever, historian lan Kershaw suggests that this was probably an example of Hitler’s opportunism rather than his own devotion to the faith (he identified himself as a Christian in Mein Kampf, however was
known to be hostile towards the religion in private)
It is sate to say that Hitler was not a feminist. He believed that the German Empire was at its best when it
was run by men such as Otto von Bismarck in the 1800s, and that women’s rights (along with other things,
such as liberalism and democracy) were disruptive. Instead, Hitler firmly believed that a women’s place was domestic, stating that “the goal of female education must invariably be the future mother”. He was also an advocate of sexual conservatism, berating movies, vaudeville, and theatres for causing the “poisoning
of the soul” stating that “you will hardly be able to deny that this is not the right kind of food, particularly for the youth.
Theatre, art, literature, cinema, press, posters, and window displays must be cleansed of all manifestations of our rotting world, and place in the service of a moral, political, and cultural idea.”
The role of prominent leaders in the Nazi state
Though Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Nazi Germany, and thus exercised supreme control and power, that
did not mean that other powerful and prominent individuals did not exist within the Regime; rather, Hitler
had many powerful allies that aided in his and the Nazi Party’s consolidation of power within Germany,
fulfilling a variety of different roles within the regime. In this section, you will find an outline of the role
and significance of some of Hitler’s closest, and most powerful allies: Joseph Goebbels, Hermann Géring,
Heinrich Himmler, Rudolf Hess, Robert Ley, Ernst Réhm, and Albert Speer.
Joseph Goebbels
- Appointed Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on March 13th 1939, and cultivated and consolidated the ‘Fuhrer Myth’.
- Goebbels became the First President of the Reichskukurkammer (Reich Culture Chamber)
- Propaganda under Goebbels took many forms: speeches, writings, pamphlets, leaflets, posters, radio broadcasts, films, music, theatre, etc.
- Goebbels merged forms of cultural expression with Nazi ideology.
Hermann Goring
- As a former military officer, Hitler entrusted him with the command of the SA.
- In 1932, Goring was named President of the Reichstag
- Goring formed the Gestapo, and began to establish concentration camps.
- As leader of the Gestapo, he was critical to the orchestration of the Night of the Long Knives.
- In 1935, Goring became the Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force)
- In 1939, Hitler declared Goring his successor.
Heinrich Himmler
- He held the critical title of Reichsfuhrer-SS — leader of the Schutzstatfel (SS), appointed in 1929
- The principle role of the SS was to serve as the bodyguards of Hitler and other prominent Nazi leaders, however Himmler developed this small body into one of the more powerful corps in Nazi Germany.
- Himmler introduced two new key functions to the SS, protecting the internal security for the country, and maintaining “guardianship” over racial purity and hygiene
- Took control of the German police forces, and by the end of 1934, he was in command of every state political police department in Germany, merging them together to form the Gehaime Staatspolizei
- In 1933-1934 he began to oversee the centralised concentration system.
- By July 1934, Hitler announced that the SS was now an independent
organisation, with its leader subordinate to the Fuhrer.
Rudolf Hess
- Served as Hitler’s Deputy Fuhrer of the Nazi Party from April 21st 1933 to May 12th 1941
- This involved a variety of important dues and responsibilities, including but not limited to appearing on Hitler’s behalf at rallies, making speeches on Hitler’s behalf,
and signing into law various pieces of proposed legislation (including the
Nuremberg Laws in 1935). - In 1941, Hess crash landed and was arrested in Britain. He was held in custody for the entire duration of World War Il.
