the nature of government theme Flashcards
1
Q
how did alexander II enforce his autocracy?
A
- reforms (i.e. emancipation) only happened to stop a revolution
- reform programme ended after first assassination attempt
- trial of political opponents in 1877
- serf owners/nobility compensated = maintenance of hierarchical power
2
Q
how did alexander III enforce his autocracy?
A
- “reaction” against reforms of alexander II
- imprisonment, executions and surveillance of those who opposed (and murdered) his father
- land captains introduced to monitor and control peasants
- “manifesto on unshakable autocracy” reasserted authority of the tsars
- reintroduced censorship = limit publications against the tsars and any promotion of democracy
- greater control of legal system: closed courts, removal of judges etc
3
Q
how did nicholas II enforce his autocracy?
A
- autocracy continued, even apparent move towards democracy (october manifesto and duma) was partly withdrawn and limited by fundamental laws of 1906
4
Q
what changes did the provisional government make to autocracy?
A
- march 1917 = allowed greater freedoms and democracy
- promise of election for a constituent assembly
- release of political prisoners
- right of trade unions
- freedom of press
- religion etc
5
Q
how was marxism-leninism implemented by lenin?
A
- anti-capitalist, arguing proletariat would be exploited by bourgeoise for labour, therefore workers should overthrow capitalists and govern themselves = intellectuals needed to help govern short-term
- 1902: “what is to be done?” = necessary to bypass elections and allow russia to be run by party central committee, led by bolsheviks
- october revolution and disbanding of the constituent assemble in november
- civil war (1917-21) = defeated opponents of communists revolution
- war communism = forced requisitioning and sharing produce (use of cheka to enforce cooperation)
- nep after civil war to appease peasants, but it caused a split in party (too compromising and not communist enough)
6
Q
how did stalin move to a totalitarianist regime?
A
- command economy: centralised planning for collectivisation (produce and farms) and 5 year plans (targets for greater industrialisation). full control over economy and production (removal of nep)
- personalisation of the superstructure revolved around himself, all important decisions directed at him. “cult of personality” = propaganda (censorship, posters, art etc) to indoctrinate and persuade people of stalin’s authority and success
7
Q
how authoritarian was khrushchev’s rule?
A
- he started to move away from stalinism
- criticising stalin for preparing enough for war, crimes against russians and “outsiders”
- released political prisoners, relaxed censorship, removed cult of personality = more liberal and reforming
- maintained central control and sued force when needed e.g. against hungarian uprising in 1956
8
Q
how was there continuity between the tsars and the communists when it came to central administration?
A
- both structures = hierarchical (tsar at top of politburo (communists)
- all parts were accountable to the leaders
9
Q
what examples of central administration did the tsar and communists use?
A
- tsars: council of ministers (law and making administration), imperial council of state (gave tsar legal and financial advice, committee of ministers (changed in 1906) and senate (supreme court)
- communists: all russian congress of soviets and the central executive committee (cec) divided into 3 parts {politburo (policy making, highest group), orgburo (organisation of the communist party), ogburo (dealt with opposition)}
- council of people’s commissars (sovnarkom) = government ministers
10
Q
what were the changes in central administration?
A
- tsars: 1905 october manifesto = committee of minister divided up and duties given to 1) state council to monitor duma and 2) duma
- power of duma changed in 1906, fundamental laws said it was accountable to tsar = limited change - communists: 1924 constitution = recognised ussr. this congress was headed by the cec, with the leaders running the government in between congresses
- 1936 constitution = supreme soviet (ussr), divided between soviet of the union and soviet of nationalities = appeared to offer more representation across russia (rarely met and stalin and communist party maintained power and final say)
11
Q
what changes did the tsars make to the local government?
A
- before 1861 = provinces under control of local nobility and the mir. this changed with the emancipation = local nobility no longer had their role
- alexander II introduced zemstva (rural) in 1864: landowners and peasants voted for members and to stand in elections, there were property qualifications
- alexander II introduced duma (urban) in 1870: had higher qualifications then the zemstva to stand
- they provided local services in education, health, transport etc. were many liberals and intellectuals working for them, called the “third element” = demanded greater liberal and democratic ideas in central government too
- represent some elements of democracy and reform
- abolished in 1917 by bolsheviks as being too bourgeois and middle class
12
Q
what changes did the communists make to the local government?
A
- workers council first established in october manifesto of 1905, involved in strikes, workers rights etc
- srs and sds joined and dominated executive committee
- march-october 1917 = petrograd sovietcontrolled russia thorugh control over workers, strikes and transport
- petrograd order number 1 = soldiers under command of soviets
- soviets = main system of local government for rest of period
- some elements of representation but the dominance and control of the soviets by the communists reduced the democratic element
13
Q
what were the changes made to the judiciary?
A
- 1864: legal reforms = create jury system, new courts for different cases, better pay for judges and public could attend courts
- 1877: new senate court to try political cases, but was discredited after vera zasulich case. some argued new reforms were allowing revolutionary activity
- 1881: alex III reversed liberal approach, centralised police under minister for interior (and extended powers of arrest), special courts set up for political cases with increased powers. jps replaced by land captains
- reform and subsequent reinforcement of authoritarian legal system = reflects how this was used to enforce tsar’s autocratic rule
- similar to how it was used under communists: 1917 onwards = “revolutionary justice” legalised the use of terror to deter crime
14
Q
what was the vera zasulich case?
A
a revolutionary who shot governor of st petersburg. she was found not guilty as it was argued her actions were justified, as he was a tyrant
15
Q
how did alexander II use the secret police?
A
- was called the third section (exiled oponnents)
- replaced in 1880 by okhrana, which targeted small groups and individuals (imprisoned or exiled)
- weren’t that successful (many assassination attempts)
16
Q
how did alexander III and nicholas II use the secret police?
A
- okhrana against opposition groups e.g. srs and sds
- used undercover agents
- growth of opposition groups and strikes, rebellions (especially during war) suggest they were limited
17
Q
how did lenin use the secret police?
A
- introduced cheka to deal with opposition to the bolsheviks
- used to enforce war communism and for the red terror (persecution, killings etc during civil war)
- ogpu (less brutal) replaced cheka in 1924, once bolshevism was established
18
Q
how did stalin use the secret police?
A
- introduced the nkvd in 1934
- feared growing opposition
- more brutal again: included show trials, purges (executions, labour camps)
19
Q
how did khrushchev use the secret police?
A
- introduced the mvd for ordinary criminals and civil disobedience
- introduced kgb for internal and external security opposition
20
Q
how did the tsars use the army?
A
to stop strikes and rebellions with alexander III used to enforce russification and nicholas II used it to control workers protests
21
Q
how did lenin use the army?
A
- mrc (petrograd soldiers) used to defeat provisional government in october revolution
- merged with red guards (peasants, workersm cossacks) to create red army
- were successful in defeating opposition against white and green armies in civil war and securing lenin
22
Q
how did stalin use the army?
A
- used red army to requisition grain (forced collectivisation) and for purged
- used in great terror (against russian people)
- ironically many military leaders were also removed in the great purge of 1936-8 (seen as potential threat)
- he viewed the red army with suspicion after war (e.g. general zhukov exiled)
23
Q
how did khrushchev use the army?
A
used more for international conflicts e.g. cuban missile crisis of 1962
24
Q
how did nicholas II use propaganda?
A
- portraits
- pamphlets
- photos
- events (1913 romanov celebrations)
- aim to increase popularity
25
how did communists use propaganda?
- slogans
- cult of personality
- newspapers
- stakhanovite movement = encourage productivity
- social realism in art = helped the indoctrination of communist ideals of strength, work and dedication
26
what were the tsars approach to censorship?
- relaxed censorship overall
- they did monitor subversive material
- led to publication of karl marx in russia, under alex II and kopek newspapers aimed at workers
- some details of discussion in the dumas were also published
- highlighting greater awareness and availability of information opposed to tsardom and new political beliefs
27
what were the communists approach to censorship?
- establishment of agitprop (writers and "official" newspaper)
- promoted idealised russian life
- schools, libraries, radio etc under surveillance to monitor oppositional ideas
- stalin created union of soviet writers (any writer who were refused were exiled or arrested)
- khrushchev reduced censorship (books, newspapers and libraries greatly increased)
28
what was the difference between tsars and communists and how they used repression?
- tsars only used repression as means of maintaining control
- communists used it deliberately to create terror as a means of control
- used "terror" and persecution on a much wider scale then tsars (mainly targeted small groups)
29
how was internal opposition to the tsars dealt with?
opponents were removed from their posts e.g. witte was demoted from being finance minister in 1903
30
who were the populists (narodniks) and what did they do?
- group, created under nicholas II, of intellectuals, led by chernyshevsky and lavrov
- chernyshevsky published "what is to be done?" in 1863 = ideas for how to deal with poor peasants and influenced by marx
- lavrov organised "going to the people" campaign in 1873-4 where 4000 university students tried to educate peasants with political ideas
- overall failed and disagreements over whether to use violence of peace
31
who were the people's will and what did they do?
- emerged from "land and liberty" movement (pressure group who lived amongst peasants to understand their plight)
- wanted to use violence to start revolution and made 4 failed attempts to assassinate alex II, before succeeding in 1881
32
who were the socialist revolutionaries (srs) and what did they do?
- created in 1901 and led by chernov, but split into 2 groups:
- left wing = more radical and responsible for 2000 political killings (i.e. grand duke sergei and plehve (minister of the interior)). mainly focused on problems facing industrial workers
- right wing = moderate, worked with other parties and groups, appealing to peasants
- had amassed great support by 1917
33
who were the social democrats (sds) and what did they do?
- created in 1898
- influenced by plekhanov (from marx) = urged workers to develop a working class consciousness
- main goals focused on improving pay and reducing working hours for the workers
34
who were the liberals and what did they do?
- "westerners" who wanted russia ran in a similar way to democracies in west
- creation of zemstva highlighted liberal ideas
- struve created union of liberation in 1904 = wanted greater freedoms, more land distribution, improved conditions for workers and representative constituent assembly
35
who were the kadets and what did they do?
- led by milyukov
- formed after the 1906 october manifesto (they supported it)
- wanted a constitutional monarchy
- influential in the first duma and opposed it's disbanding
- many removed for next duma
36
who were the octoberists and what did they do?
- led by guchov and rodzianko
- liberal policies
- wanted further reform after 1905, but overall loyal to the tsar
37
why was opposition to the tsars so limited before?
- control by the tsars = increase in censorship, police state and courts for political crimes after 1880s
- political control = limited power for groups, not allowed before 1905s, then gradual removal of influence through successive dumas
- lack of unity from opposition groups e.g. some wanted democracy or marxism, or constitutional monarchy etc
38
what was opposition to the provisional government?
- release of political prisoners and those in exile (lenin, stalin etc) = opposition to new government
- wanted removal of elite politicians from the duma
- lenin published april thesis with plans to overthrow prov gov and place all power with the soviet
- kornilov affair = general kornilov attempted to take over of power but put down by kerensky with support of bolsheviks
- growing strength of workers committees = many supported bolsheviks
39
what happened during the elections to the constituent assembly?
- bolsheviks had started to "rule de facto" but didn't win majority in november 1917 elections
- srs won 370 seats and bolsheviks only 175 = opposition from voters
- lenin argued elections had been rigged and used military force to close the assembly
40
what opposition did lenin and the bolsheviks face after the civil war (1917-21)?
- faced opposition in their attempt to maintain and increase power over all russia (fighting, battles, arrests and murders)
- white army = political opponents from constituent assembly
- green army = peasants opposed to bolshevik rule
- foreign countries and nearby states: british marines, usa troops, czech legion, poland, ukraine (wanting freedom from russia), cossacks
- 1921, following victory of red army, lenin banned all other political parties and factionalism within the bolshevik party
41
what individual opposition did lenin face?
- end of 1917 = kamenev, zinoviev and rykov wanted colaition with other socialists (lenin refused)
- trotsky and others opposed signing treaty of brest-litovsk (loss of important land)
- war communism was unpopular with right wing bolsheviks but nep was unpopular woth left
- 1924 = clique called troika was formed of zinoviev, kamenev and stalin and were all opposed to trotksy (feared he would be next leader)
- 1922 = lenin produced political testament and criticised other bolsheviks (stalin as he had a lot of power)
42
what was opposition and the power struggle after power struggle after lenin's death like?
- opposition and disputes in party: whether to continue with nep, some demands for more democracy, to spread communism (permanent revolution) = supported by trotsky or just in russia
- troika removed trotsky as commissar in 1925, stalin removed kamenev and zinoviev as secretaries (had opposed him regarding peasants and foreign policy)
- stalin increased politburo to 8 members and more of his supporters
- united opposition group = trotsky, zinoviev and kamenev to opposed stalin. argued against nep and wanted more free speech = stalin excluded them all from politburo and trotsky exiled
43
what opposition did stalin face?
- 1921 = bukharin, kamenev, tomsky and rykov opposed collectivisation plans. bukharin removed from politburo and others demoted.
- stalin sued loyal supporters to dominate policies and implement 5 year plans and collectivisation
- 1930s = opposition dealt with more harshly (wither removed from party, executed or exiled)
- e.g. those who criticised collectivisation, or pace of industrialisation
- politburo members kirov, kossior and 3 others were executed (oppositionists?)
44
what peasant opposition was there after the emancipation edict?
- 300 before vs 647 after with more in 1890s = put down by land captains
- 1900-07 = more rebellions over amount of redemption payments, land distribution and rising prices = taking land, not paying taxes, robbing warehouses and attacks on landowners
- black earth regions
- stolypin (pm 1906-11) introduced land reforms to appease peasants but led to more opposition
- high food prices and shortages = attacks on landowners, public utilities etc. formed into peasant soviets and well organised by educated peasants and army deserters
45
what peasant opposition was there after the civil war?
- peasants supported both white and red armies (bolsheviks)
- many turned to support whit army after grain requisitioning was introduced
- one reason why nep was introduced after the way
46
what peasant opposition was there after collectivisation?
- due to removal of mir = requisitioning of resources and starvation
- some peasants refused to cooperate and slaughtered cattle in protest
- khrushchev = due to failings and food shortages from virgin land scheme (not a large threat)
47
what was opposition from industrial workers under the tsars like?
- strikes often used
- 1885 at morozov dye works (8000 workers), strikes were officially banned following bloody sunday in 1905 but continued
- lena goldfield miners in 1912
- putilov works in february 1917
48
what was opposition from industrial workers under the communists like?
- 1920s to world war 2 = little unrest
- most accepted the 5 year plans and had little opportunity to protest due to control measures
- some committed suicide if they failed to meet targets
- virtually no unrest during war
- khrushchev = some riots over living standards e.g. 1962 workers of novercherkhassk protested against food shortages and prices, with some killed by authorities
49
how effective were industrial workers opposition?
- 1897 = working day reduced from 11.5 hours to 7
- inspection and administration of working conditions established
- promised control and protection after 1917 = never actually happened under communists
50
what were the alexander II and nicholas II's attitudes to political change?
- wanted to maintain autocracy
- did introduce democracy elements with the zemstva and national duma
- but zemstva was still hierarchical and not completely representative
- dumas powers were limited after 1906
- both were forced into reforms due to events, fear of revolution and means of control
- used mixture of reform and repression to keep control
51
what were the provisional government's attitudes to political change?
- more liberal and compromising ideas
- promise of constituent assembly
- release of political prisoners
- alliance with the petrograd soviet
52
what were the communist's (sans khrushchev) attitudes to political change?
- initially wanted revolutionary change, but once in power = concerned with maintaining and consolidating power
- stalin = more representation to regional and local groups through 1936 constitution but their power was very limited
- full power was centralised under stalin at top
- greater totalitarianism throufh repression and terror = reduced opportunity for political change
53
what were khrushchev's attitudes to political change?
- allowed some change through destalinisation and decentralisation
- more power to localities and increased power local soviets
- economic decentralisation
- limits of terms of office for officials
54
overall, what changes and continuity was there to the nature of government?
- both overall led autocratic governments (unlimited power under one leader)
- communists (stalin and lenin) used force and repression to greater extent to impose their leadership
- stalin continued to use force and repression to create totalitarian regime and more personalised rule
- khrushchev allowed elements of reform (necessary to enhance russia's standing throughout world)
- opposition came from outside (more for tsars) and inside forces (1920s and 50s through struggles for power and perceived threat in 1930s)
- limited in outcome, was successful through assassination of alex II and removal of tsar in 1917 and implementation of some reforms like duma
- after civil war = opposition extremely restricted through repression and centralisation = calls for increasing food, higher wages and lower targets not met
- limited opposition had not been effective
