The Nature of Government Flashcards
1
Q
What is meant by autocracy?
A
A system of government where one person has total power.
Russia was autocratic 1855-1917.
2
Q
What are the branches of tsarist autocracy?
A
- Tsar expected the total submission of his subjects.
- Tsar had a paternalistic duty - was supported in this by the Russian orthodox church.
- Autocracy was a practical necessity - the Russian empire was so vast and diverse.
3
Q
How did Alexander II present himself as autocratic?
A
- Had some reformist tendencies.
- Autocracy was a practical necessity - the Russian empire was so vast and diverse.
4
Q
How did Alex III present himself as autocratic?
A
Blamed his fathers liberal concessions for the death of his father.
As a result he reversed some of the liberal progressions his father had made.
Groups like Peoples Will oppressed.
5
Q
How did Nicholas II present himself as autocratic?
A
- Made ‘liberal’ concessions in 1905.
- Undermined by the set of fundamental laws passed in 1906.
- By 1907 the Duma held very little influence.
6
Q
Fundamental Laws 1906:
A
The All-Russian-Emperor posses the Supreme Autocratic Power.
7
Q
Who was Alex IIIs reactionary rule influenced by?
A
Pobedonostsev argued that a constitutional government was unworkable.
8
Q
How did Russian intellectuals interpret Marxs theory on communism?
A
- Russian intellectuals interpreted Marx’s ideology as Serfdom and Capitalism being replaced by a more egalitarian society.
9
Q
What are the elements of Marxist-Leninism?
A
-Lenin agreed that workers had to attack the bourgeoise base in order to overthrow existing rule.
-In Lenin’s ‘What is to be done?’ he proposes a party central committee led by experts that could govern the interests of the workers before they could govern themselves.
-Lenin’s interpretation led to divisions between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.
10
Q
What was Trotsky’s interpretation of socialism?
A
- Trotsky wanted a permanent revolution - aiming to spread communism around the world.
11
Q
What economic policy does Lenin adopt after the civil war?
A
After the Civil War Lenin moves from War Communism to the New Economic Policy (NEP).
Seen as a more liberal economic policy.
12
Q
What was Marxist-Leninism-Stalinism?
A
- Stalin believed that the base of society could only be replaced by a superstructure.
- Implemented through his command economy based on 5-year plans and collectivisation.
- The Superstructure was to be controlled by one individual.
- Those who disagreed would be labelled bourgeoise.
- Centred on the cult of personality.
13
Q
Why was there a shift in leadership style between Lenin and Stalin?
A
- Some argue it provided a practical solution to the Soviet Union’s issues.
- Others argue that Stalin manipulated marxist Leninism for his own meglomania - seen in the cult of personality.
- Argument that Stalin was continuing the work of Lenin.
14
Q
Who were the 4 rivals to Stalin after his death in 1953?
A
- Malenkov ( suspected of killing Stalin and colluding with Beria to form a duopoly of power).
- Beria.
- Khrushchev - Secretary of the Party Central Committee.
- Vorishilov - president of the USSR - symbolic role.
15
Q
How did Khrushchevs position in government help him win the leadership race?
A
- Secretary of the Party Central Committee - meant that Khrushchev was in touch with the desires and needs of party members.
16
Q
What was the conflict between Malenkov and Khrushchev?
A
Malenkov wanted westernisation.
Khrushchev responds by introducing the Virgin Land Campaigns.
1955, under pressure from Khrushchev, Malenkov is forced to resign.
17
Q
Why did Khrushchev begin his programme of destalinisation?
A
- Believed that it had tarnished the USSR’s image overseas - this was unhelpful in the current cold war climate.
- Thought that the people would welcome an alternative to Stalin.
18
Q
What criticisms of Stalin were made at the Twentieth Party Congress?
A
- He had never been accepted by Lenin as a potential party leader.
- He had created a state unprepared for military conflict in 1941.
- Committed misdemeanours against outsiders who should have been embraced by the Soviet Leadership.
19
Q
Who were the anti-party group?
A
Opposed Khrushchev.
Wanted to abolish the post of the first secretary of the party - would have destroyed Khrushchev’s power base.
- Led by Malenkov, Kaganovich and Moltov.
20
Q
How did Khrushchev respond to the anti-party group?
A
- Labelled the actions of there group as illegal and removed them from government.
21
Q
What were the key features of desalinisation?
A
- Release of political prisoners from labour camps.
- Relaxation of censorship.
- Erosion of the cult of personality - Stalins body removed from Lenin’s Mausoleam.
22
Q
What was the re-action to desalinisation?
A
- Strikes and riots for greater freedoms - especially from satellite states.
- Khrushchev still used force - tanks in Hungary to suppress the Navy regime.
(shows that Khrushchev didn’t move too far from authoritarian rule).
23
Q
Why was Nich II pressured to make constitutional reforms in 1905?
A
Russo-Japanese War (1905).
1905 seen as the year of revolution, Bloody Sunday, political assassinations and a naval mutiny (Potemkin).
24
Q
How did Nich II respond to the social unrest in 1905?
A
- October Manifesto.
25
What was the 1905 October Manifesto?
Nich II's blue print for a new elective form of government that revolved around the Duma.
26
Why in hindsight was Nich IIs Duma not very revolutionary?
- Historian Dominic Lieven pointed out that the new constitution was based to some extent on the one created by Bismarck (1815-98).
27
What were the different elements of central government institutions (1855-1905)?
- The Tsar.
- The Council of Ministers.
- The Senate.
- The Committee of Ministers.
-The Imperial Council of State.
- The Personal Chancellory of his Imperial Majesty
28
What was the role of the Council of Ministers (1855-1905)?
- Chaired by the tsar.
- Officials were nominated by the tsar.
- Main role was to discuss draft legislation.
- Abandoned by Alex III in 1832.
29
What was the role of the Senate (1855-1905) ?
- Acted as a Supreme Court in Russia.
- Final court of appeal.
- Promoter of manifesto's from the tsar.
- Adjudicator of disagreements between landowners.
30
What was the role of the Committee of Ministers (1855-1905) ?
- Made up of 13 ministers initially - each responsible for a different section of Russian affairs.
- The 4 key positions were the minister for interior, war, finance and Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod).
- Ministers couldn't formulate policy.
- Abolished in 1906.
31
What was the role of the Imperial Council of State (1855-1905) ?
- Gave advice to the tsar on legal and financial matters.
- Appointed by the tsar.
- Tsar under no obligation to accept their recommendations.
32
What was the role of the Personal Chancellery of His Imperial majesty?
- Had 3 sections.
- Alex II replaces it with the Council of Ministers.
33
What were the elements of Russian government after 1905?
- The Tsar.
- The Council of Ministers.
- The State Council ( Split into the State Council and the Duma).
34
What was the role of the Council of Ministers after 1905?
- Main law-making body.
- Chaired by a PM - initially Sergei Witte.
- Resembled a parliamentary cabinet.
- Outcome of debates would be fed back to the tsar.
- Ineffective as the tsar could bypass the council and the chamber found it nearly impossible to undo legislation from the tsar.
35
What was the role of the Duma after 1905?
- meant to debate affairs of state.
- made up of an assembly elected by the people, elections happened every 5 years.
- The electoral process was deliberately complex and favoured property owners.
36
Key features of the First Duma (April - July 1906):
- Debates of the matter of empire.
- The Duma was concerned over land distribution.
- The government said that compulsory land distribution was not an option, this angered the duma and their radical suggestions gained press coverage.
- Nich II claimed that their actions were illegal and disbanded them after 2 months.
37
What happened between the 1st and 2nd Duma?
- New approach of dealing with dissidents.
- Led to the arrest of key Kadet and Labours party members who signed the Vyborg manifesto.
- Led by Stolypin who thought that the old system was too soft - 'Stolypins Neckties'.
38
The Vyborg Manifesto:
A set of demands from militant Duma MPs asking the people of Finland not to pay taxes or serve in the armed forces until the Duma was restored.
39
Key features of the second duma (Feb - Jen 1907).
- Composition affected by Stolypins policies.
- Fewer Kadets and Labourites, but more SD's, Octoborists and the far right.
- Stolypin distrusted the Duma over land reforms and the management of the Russian army.
- SD Members was framed as attempting to arrange an army mutiny.
- Tsar declared the Duma subversive and dissolved it.
40
Octoberists:
Supporters of the tsar, particularly supportive of the October Manifesto.
41
Key Feature of the Third Duma (Nov 1907 - Jun 1912):
- Mainly contained people who were loyal to the crown.
- Significant reduction in nationalist members from the non-Russian party of the empire.
- Judicial system improved with the reinstatement of justices of the peace.
- State run national insurance scheme for workers.
42
Key features of the Fourth Duma (Nov 1912 - Feb 1917) :
- Dominated by far-right politicians.
-Put pressure n the tsar to abdicate.
43
Who were the 'Progressive Bloc'?
Emerged in 1915.
Duma representatives demanded a national government to take charge of the war effort.
44
How did Nich II respond to the emergence of the progressive bloc?
- Suspended the Duma and personally took charge of the armed forces.
45
Key events that led to the abdication of the Romanovs:
25th Feb: General strike takes place, ends in strikers being shot at.
26th Feb: Duma calls for abdication tsars orders protestors to disband, the military decides to join protestors.
1st March: Soviet Order No1 passed - gave the Petrograd soviet control of the military.
2nd March: Tsar abdicates and PG formed.
46
Reasons why the provisional government was unable to tackle opposition?
- Majority of party members wanted a short term government based on consensus - would lead to creation of a constituent assembly.
- Changes made by the PG favoured the revival of political groups such as the Bolsheviks.
- Bolshevik leaders appealed to both peasants and workers.
- Bolshevik position was strengthened in the Kornilov Affair.
47
What was the second all-Russian congress of soviets?
- Met on October 25th.
- Right wing SRs and Mensheviks favoured a coalition government - they would out the congress in protest, left the Bolsheviks with little opposition and a clear mandate to rule.
48
What was the result of the election to the constituent assembly?
- Bolsheviks fail to win a majority.
- Lenin claimed that the constitutional assembly was elected on the old register.
- Used this to justify shutting down the assembly in Jan 1918.
49
What was the Decree on Land?
- Issued by the Bolsheviks.
- Sanctioned the requisition of private land by peasants.
- Stated that the division and redistribution of land could only be carried out by village society.
(essentially what the SRs had been proposing for years).
50
How did the Bolsheviks deal with the issue of war?
- Bolshevik's issued a Decree on Peace - called for an immediate truce.
- Treaty of Brest-Litvosk agreed - ceded 1/3 of European territory of Russia to Germany.
51
What were they key elements of the Bolshevik Government?
- The All Russian Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee.
- Sovnarkom
-The Cheka.
52
What was the role of the All-RUssian Congress of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee:
- Supposed to be the mainstay of the government.
- 1918, Mensheviks and SRs expelled from the central committee.
- Russia looked like a one party state.
53
What was the role of the Sovnarkom?
Consisted of ministers with specific government responsibilities.
Eg Trotsky was in charge of foreign affairs.
54
What was the role of the Cheka?
- Initially headed by Dzerzhinsk.
- Main aim was to prevent the growth of counter revolutionary groups.
55
How were the members of the Sovnarkom elected?
- Village soviets (dominated by bolsheviks) chose representatives for district soviets.
- District soviets then elected members for provincial soviets.
- Provincial soviets provided the membership for the Sovnarkom.
56
Key features of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR:
- came into play post-1936.
- Elected by the Sovnarkom.
- Given the sole power to make laws for the whole union.
- Divided into two houses - gave the impression of a genuine form of federal government.
57
How was local government dealt with pre-1861?
- Village issues discussed by the Mir ( a group of elders responsible for governing the behaviour of rural villages).
- Nobility largely in charge.
58
When were the Zemsteva introduced?
- 1864, under Alex II.
59
Why was the Zemsteva introduced?
- Consequence of the emancipation of the serfs (1861).
60
Key features of the Zemsteva
- Elected membership vote on by land owners, urban dwellers and peasants.
Electors decided by property qualifications.
61
What was the 'Third Element':
Liberal voices in the Zemstva, including teachers, lawyers and doctors, which demanded that central government was remodelled on the lines of the Zemstva.
62
What replaced the Zemsteva when the Bolsheviks gained power?
- Post 1916, Zemsteva were dominated by soviets.
- Soviets first appeared in St Petersburgh after the October Manifesto.
63
The power of the Soviets:
- Petrograd Order No1 placed ultimate authority in the hands of the Soviets.
- Soviets had no choice bet to yield to the authority of the Bolsheviks.
64
What changes to the judiciary were made under the tsars?
1864 - introduction go the jury system for criminal cases and the creation of a hierarchy courts.
1877 - After attempt on Alex IIs life, a new department to the senate set up to try political cases.
1881 - Alex II moves away from liberal approaches to law, police were centralised and justices of peace replaced by land owners.
65
Criminal Code 1921:
Legalised the use of terror to deter criminals.
66
The Third Section of the imperial chancellery:
- Secret Police used by Alex II.
- Alex II replaces the Third Section with the Okhrana in 1880.
67
How did Alex III use the Okhrana?
- Spy and imprison opposition.
Okhrana activity increased as the SRs and SDs took off.
1855-1917, 1 million prisoners and their families deported to the Ural Mountains and Siberia.
68
What did the PG replace the Okhrana with?
The Counter Espionage Bureau of the Petrograd Military District.
- Was supposed to weed out those undermining the war effort.
69
Key features of the Cheka:
- Established but the Bolsheviks in 1917.
- Tasked to deal with counter revolutionaries.
- Differed from the previous secret police with their use of terror.
- Enforced war communism, eliminated Kulaks and administrated labour camps.
70
When was the Cheka disbanded?
After the civil war.
71
Key features of the NKVD:
Formed in 1934.
Created a permanent form of terror.
Crucial for the imposition of Stalins purges.
40 million people were sent to gulags under Stalins regime.
- headed initially by Yezhov - who was then blamed for the ant-purge campaign and replaced with Beria.
72
What was the NKVD replaced by in 1943?
The MGB and the MVD.
73
What was the role of the MGB and the MVD?
MGB - responsible for keeping the general population in line.
MVD - another version of the NKVD.
- Merged into the MVD in 1953.
74
How was the MVD re-organised under de-stalinisation?
1954 its organised into two departments.
- One to deal with ordinary civil disorder.
- The other (The KGB), focussed on internal and external security.
By 1960 there were 11,000 people in gulags.
75
What was the role of the army under Alex III?
Russification under Alex III led to the army having an increased peace keeping presence.
76
In 1917 how many members of the Petrograd Garrison supported the Revolution?
150,000
77
Why was the army important in the civil war?
Under Trotsky the Red Army was instrumental in enabling the Bolsheviks to win the civil war.
- by the end of the war the Bolsheviks had 5 million conscripts, the Whites had 500,000.
78
Kronastd 1921:
sailors mutinied - showed that the Bolsheviks didn't have total control of the military.
The force that they were put down with undermined their position as the party of the people.
79
How did Stalin use the army?
To seize grain under collectivisation and implement the purges and great terror.
80
What was the Great Purge 1936-8?
- Stalin perceived the military as a threat.
- By the end of the purge 40% of the military had been removed.
81
What was the army like post WW2?
1945-53, military leaders were viewed with suspicion.
Marshal Zhukov ( chief of staff during WW2), was exiled.
82
Under Khrushchev what did the size of the army reduce by?
from 3.6 million and 2.4 million, in line with the policy of Detente.
83
What censorship wss there under Alex II?
- Russia experienced Glasnost.
- 1865, censorship was relaxes.
- resulted in the increased circulation of newspapers.
84
Censorship under Nich II:
- reverted back to the Glasnost of Alex II.
- Number of publications increased 3 fold 1900-14.
- Political matters discussed in the Duma also appeared in print.
85
What censorship was ther during WW1?
- When the Bolsheviks seized power they abolished press freedoms in order to suppress 'counter revolutionaries'.
-1921, the Agitation and Propaganda Committee founded with the aim of promoting an idealised picture of Russian life.
86
What censorship was there under Stalin?
- By 1932, all literary groups were closed.
- Anyone wanting to write had to join the USW.
Writers had to produce work based on socialist realism.
87
What censorship was there under Khrushchev?
- Censorship was eased.
- By the late 1950s, 65,000 books were being published a years - x2 the number that had come out during the 1920s.
88
What slogan's did the Bolsheviks use?
'Peace, Bread and land'.
89
What opposition groups were there to the tsars?
The populists.
The People's Will
The Socialist Revolutionaries.
The Social Democrats.
The liberals.
90
Who were the Populists?
Russian intellectuals.
Had greater freedom to criticise tsarist rule following the reforms from Alex II.
Influenced by the works of Marx.
Lavrov (leader ) organised a 'going to the people campaign'.
91
What group emerged from he Populists?
The Land and Liberty Campaign 1867.
92
The Land Liberty Campaign (1867):
Failed because of a disagreement as to whether the group should employ black reparations or direct action
93
Who were the People's Will (1879)?
- Terrorist group that emerged from Land and Liberty.
- Primary objective was to assassinate the tsar.
- 4 attempts made on Alex II's life before he was killed in 1881.
- Achieved their aim of assassinating the tsar, did not cause a overthrow of tsarism.
94
Who were the socialist revolutionaries?
-emerged from the populist movement
- focussed on improving living conditions.
- led by intellectual Victor Cherkov.
- 1905, the group split the radical left wing SRs and the moderate right.
1901-5. the left was responsible for 2000 political killings.
- Biggest threat to tsarist rule pre-1917 revolution.
95
Who were the Social Democrats (SDs ).
- Founded in 1895.
- Emphasised the need of working class consciousness.
- 1905, signs of division between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks.
96
Who were the Liberals?
Wanted Russia to be rile in the same way as western democracies.
- 1904, Pyotr Struve founded the union of liberation.
- Wanted a fairer land distribution system to peasants and a representative constituent assembly.
97
Who were the Kadets?
The Constitutional Democrats, a liberal political group founded in 1905.
Played an important role in opposition in the first Duma.
98
Who were the Octoborists?
Moderate liberals.
Loyal to the tsar but wanted changes to the system of government.
99
Argument that opposition pre-1917 were unsuccessful?
- Major political changes from the October Manifesto were cancelled out by the fundamental laws 1906.
100
What opposite was there to the Provisional Government.
- Bolsheviks dominated opposition.
PG concerned by the growing strength of the workers committees in Petrograd.
Opposition from the workers paved the way for the Bolshevik coup.
101
What impact did the civil war have on opposition groups?
- Groups that made up the white army seen as political opposition.
After Red Victory in Lenin's 'On Party Rule' 1921 - laid the base for making all parties illegal and banned factionalism within the Bolsheviks.
102
What inside opposition was there during the rule of Lenin?
- After overthrow of PG Kamenev, Zinoviev and Rykov called for a coalition with other communist groups.
-Signing the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk was met with opposition - particularly from Trotsky.
- Adoption of War Communism considered harsh by some party members.
103
What 3 key issues did the Bolsheviks disagree on following the death of Lenin?
- Dispute between the left and right over the continuation of the NEP.
- Many wanted a more democratic form of gov.
- Those under Trotsky wanted a permanent revolution and the right emphasised the need for socialism in one country.
104
Why do Zinviev and Kamenev split form Stalin?
Both were concerned with Stalin's plan for peasants and foreign policy.
- Both removed as secretariats for their local party.
105
The Untied Opposition group:
Made-up of Trotsky Kamenve and Zinoviev.
Opposed the NEP and wanted more free speech.
All three excluded from the Politburo.
- Trotsky expelled from the USSR in 1929.
