Russia and its empire, nationalities and satellite states. Flashcards
1
Q
What are the main national minorities in Russia?
A
- Poland
- Finland
- Caucuses
- Central Asia
- Baltic Provinces.
- Russian Jews.
2
Q
What did the first Russian census in 1897 reveal about national minorities?
A
They made up 55% of the empires population in Ukraine.
3
Q
What did all leaders have in common in terms of national minorities?
A
They wanted to Russify peoples of the empire.
4
Q
Evidence that Alex II was concerned about Russia’s relationship with Poland?
A
- Poles were hopeful that Alex II’s reformist tendencies would be extended to Poland.
- Alex II wasn’t too sure - Russian military squads based in Russia were not directly issued with shells to prevent munitions from getting into the wrong hands.
5
Q
When was the Polish Revolt under Alex II?
A
1863.
6
Q
What did Alex II’s emancipation of the serfs in 1861 lead to in Poland?
A
- Gave renewed hope to the poles they would be granted certain freedoms.
- Rise in polish nationalism - increased demand for autonomy, education and reform. (eg they wanted Warsaw university reopened).
7
Q
Who was Marquis Aleksander Wielopolski?
A
- Appointed PM of Poland in 1862. (Only lasts until 1863).
- Was treated with suspicion by nationalists - viewed to be the tsars lapdog.
- Closely followed Russian guidance and approval.
8
Q
Examples of protests in Poland under Alex II?
A
- Attempted assassination attempt on Wielopolski and his viceroy.
- Also mass meetings and demonstrations.
9
Q
How did Wielopolski respond to the protests in Poland?
A
- Introduced forced conscription of young male Poles into the Russian Army.
- New recruits failed to co-operate and Feld to the woods to create bands of renegade rebels.
- Platform laid for full-blown insurrection.
10
Q
Who were the polish rebels under Alex II supported by?
A
- Land and Liberty group.
- Some Russian military officers - eg rebel leader Jaroslaw Dabrowski - officer trained and deployed in the Russian army.
11
Q
How did the Russian Army respond to unrest in Poland 1863-64?
A
- Significant disruption in the countryside - however Russian army steps up and the rebel leaders were captured and executed.
12
Q
What did Foreign Minister Gorchakov want for Poland after Wieloploski fled as a result of the unrest?
A
- Wanted Poland to be continued to be ruled by the Russian aristocracy under control of the tsar?
13
Q
What did War Minister Milytuin want for Poland after Wielopolski fled as a a result of the unrest?
A
- Wanted the Polish gentry to be purged - believed that they had lost control of the countryside and conspired with peasant ringleaders.
- Felt that Russian officials needed to be brought in to carry out governance at a grassroots level.
- Poland to be converted into the bigger nation-state Russia.
14
Q
Who replaces Wielpolski in Poland after he flees?
A
- Milyutin.
15
Q
What does Milyutin do in Poland after he gains control?
A
- 100’s of the Polish nobility killed or sent to Siberia - their estates were transferred to Russian officials.
- Polish peasants emaciated and gained more favourable terms than Russian peasants in 1861 - gained freehold rights to allowed lands and paid for this through a reformed taxation system.
- Rural district councils set up - similar to the Zemstva.
16
Q
What were the consequences of the Milyutin Plan in Poland?
A
- Level of nationalism diminished - Poland officially became the ‘Vistula Region’ of Russia.
- Russian became the official language of administration and governance, it was taught in schools.
- The Catholic Church wasn’t allowed to communicate with the Vatican - it was believed that Bishops had been sympathetic to the rebels.
17
Q
What was the impact of WW1 on Russo-Polish relations?
A
- German and Austrian advances meant that Russia was forced to give up jurisdiction over Warsaw and Vilna - centres of the Vistuala Region.
- Independence was not fully granted until the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918).
18
Q
What was the impact of the Russo-Polish War 1920?
A
- Created the prospect of Poland loosing its newly found freedom.
- Red Army suffers a major defeat in 1920 in an attempt to recapture Polish territory.
- Lenin’s forces were stopped outside Warsaw before being forced to retreat.
- Polish independence was then confirmed.
19
Q
What were Russo-Polish relations impacted by between 1933-39?
A
- The neutrality pact between Russia and Germany (Treaty of Berlin).
- Russia’s admittance to the League of Nations (Sep 1934).
- Growing concern by the end of 1935 that Germany would attempt an invasion of Russia via Poland.
- The formation of the anti-comintern alliance.
- Hilter’s lebransom policy (term given for their foreign policy expansion).
20
Q
Evidence of tensions rising between Russia and Germany during the 1930’s:
A
- 1938 Anschluss of Austria suggested that it would not have taken much for the Nazis to target Czechoslovakia and then Poland.
- Stalin’s purges and anti-appeasment stance alienated the British and the French. ( Muncih Peace Conference confirmed that the Soviet Union would be left alone to defend Poland and its own borders.)
21
Q
What did the signing of the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact of August 1939 mean for Poland?
A
- An admission to Poland by the Russian leadership that the Soviet Union would not interfere in any attempt for Germany to invade Poland.
22
Q
How did Poland respond to the early stages of WW2?
A
- Polish government flees to London with the support of the Russian underground movement to go into exile.
- One of their main aims was to ensure Poland didn’t suffer territorial loss at the end of the war.
23
Q
What event caused Russia to end diplomatic relations with the London Poles?
A
- Mass grave of 4231 Polish Officers found in a forest at Katyn.
- Germans suggested that the killings had been carried out by the NKVD.
- London Poles pushed for an investigation by the International Red Cross - leads to the Russian government accusing the exiled government of attempting to collaborate with Germany.
24
Q
What was decided on about Poland at the Yalta Conference ( Feb 1945) ?
A
- Warsaw at this point had been liberated and temporarily governed by the Red Army.
- Stalin demanded that the new Russo-Polish frontier should be established along the Curson line and that the whole of Poland had to be governed in a Soviet-backed Lublin-style regime.
-Potsdam as well fully allowed Russia to implement a soviet style government in Poland.
25
Evidence of resistance to Stalin's takeover of Poland?
- In 1950, 30,000 workers went on strike.
- They were mostly sent to newly built concentration camps - Myelin and Jaworzno.
26
What was Khrushchev's approach to Poland?
- In line with his desalinisation policy.
- Oct 1965, Wladyslaw Gomulka was released from prison to take over the leadership of Poland.
- Easing of control over Poland.
- Peasants were allowed to leave collective farms, Catholic Church was allowed to teach religion in schools.
27
What was Russification?
- Process where non-Russian regions were drawn more securely into the framework of the empire.
- Involved administrative integration, transmission of the Russian language, religion and culture.
28
What were the origins of Russification?
- The Polish Revolt (1863).
- Milyutin's plans acted as a blueprint for other attempts to resolve regional conflicts and expand Russian authority.
29
Who was Milyutin's plan criticised by ?
- Newspaper editor of the Moscow Berlin - Mikhail Katkov.
- Claimed that empowering the nobility at a local level through the Zemstva was asking for trouble.
- Believed in a multinational empire.
30
What was Russification like under Alex III and Nich II?
- Russification spread through the areas that were deemed to accept it without much opposition.
- Ukraine, the Baltic and Caucus provinces were targeted.
31
What was the main difference between the Russification implemented by the tsars and the communists?
- Communsits aimed to create a federal stored of government - one where each national authority had a certain amount of autonomy, but worked together to form a federation of states guided by Moscow.
32
What constitutions were implemented by the communists on the national minorities?
- 1918: Constitution creates the RSFSR - essentially Russia + parts of Central Asia.
- 1924: new constitution formally creates the USSR - each republic was allowed its own government and symbols of national sovereignty still answerable to the Sovnarkom.
-1936: 'Stalin Constitution' - added Kirghizia and Tajikistan to the list of states given full Republic status. Also created a system which appeared to allow greater representation of the interests of separate nation states. Also gives members the right to cede from the Union - in theory...
33
What evidence is there that Stalin's treatment of the national minorities were seen as inappropriate?
- Stalin kept very tight control of the national minorities - more so than under the tsars.
- When Khrushchev returns to power he partly reverts to the treatment of national minorities established by Lenin in the 1920s.
34
What was the difference between repression used on national minorities between the tsars and commissars?
- Under the tsars minorities were controlled through a mixture of reforms to appease and military force - eg Poland in the mid-1860s.
-Communists - particularly Stalin - used repression more so as a means of control.
- eg When Germany invaded Russia in 1941, Stalin blames national minority Govs of collaboration - as a punishment they were deported to the more remote areas of Central Asia.
- Jews were treated consistently by all regimes.
35
What was Russia's relationship with Finland before Nicholas II?
- Tsars took a fairly liberal stance - conceded to the demands for a Finnish parliament in 1863 and a constitution in 1865.
36
What were Russia's relationship with Finland like during Nich II?
- Nich II appointment of Nikolai Bobrikov as governor general changes Russia's relationship with Finland.
- Under Bobirkoc, Finland was fully integrated into the Russian empire.
- Finland's army was disbanded.
-Finnish Secretariat abolished.
- Russian became the main language.
37
What was Finland's response to the Russification implemented by Nikolai Bobrikov?
- Led to a policy of passive non-cooperation.
- Bobrikov assassinated by terrorists in 1904.
- 1905 Finland given full autonomy - however the agreement was quickly reneged by Stolypin.
- Treaty of Brest Litovsk gives Finland total independence.
38
What was the Pork Mutiny (1922) ?
- Occurred when a group of Red Guards decided to cross the border between Russia and Finland.
- The guards looted property before forcing Finnish workers to join their Soviet Battalion.
- The leader started the recruitment by standing on a box that had previously had pork in it.
39
What was Finland's relationship with Russia like under Stalin?
- Places Finland under pressure - hindered its merchant shipping between Lake Lagoda and the Gulf of Finland.
- Start of WW2 Finland refuse a request from Stalin to set up military basis on Finnish territory.
40
What was the impact of the Winter War (Nov 1939- Mar 1940) ?
- Stalin bombs Finland's capital Helsinki after their refusal to have Russian military bases in Finland.
- Highlights Russia's military weakness.
- 50,000 Soviet deaths as a result of this fairly limited conflict.
- Finland however ceded border space tot he Russians and this set the precedent for the Baltic states to be forced to become part of the USSR by summer of 1940.
41
What did Finland sign after WW2?
- The Treaty of Friendship, Separation and Mutual Assistance (1948) - Finns gain neutrality status and are left largely alone by the Soviet Union.
42
What countries does the Baltic provinces include?
- Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.
43
Why were Russian's attracted to the Baltic states?
- Had an abundant supply of raw materials - had industries that provided better payed employment.
44
What was Russification like in the Baltic states?
- Russification happened fairly easily in the Baltic provinces.
- During WW2 the states were annexed by Russia and they formed part of the RSFR and then the USSR.
- Baltic provinces suffered most during the latter part of WW2 when they were accused of collaborating with the Nazis, leading to mass deportations.
45
How were the Ukrainians treated under Alex II?
- Ukrainians attempted to build a separate national identity.
- Alex II issued decrees in 1863 and 1876 which forbade the publication and import of books written in Ukrainian.
46
What was the result of WW1 for Ukraine?
- They gain independence in the Treaty of Brest-Litosk.
- Short lived as they weren't able to resist the Red Army during the Civil War.
47
How were Ukrainians treated under Stalin?
- Ukraine recognised the importance in the Russian economy - opposed Stalin's collectivisation programme.
- Stalin blamed the behaviour on the kulaks - Ukrainian peasants suffered more than any other regional group.
48
Why was Russification relatively easy in the caucasian region?
- There were divisions along religious lines between the Armenians and the Georgians who were christians and the Azeris and Chechens who were Muslims.
- There was also low levels of literacy.
49
What opposition was there to Russification in the caucus region?
- Populist movements arose as a result of the repression - most notably the Dashnaks and the Georgian Mensheviks.
- Dashnaks ordered their own self defence militias to be used on the intrusion of Russian officials.
- The Georgian Mensheviks sought to make an ally with Germany.
50
What happened regarding independence in Georgia?
- Become independent in 1920.
- Retaken by the Red Army in 1921.
51
What did the communists want to happen in Georgia?
- Georgia should be amalgamated with Armenia and Azerbaijan.
- Georgia opposed saying that it wanted to be part of the USSR on the same terms as regions such as Ukraine.
52
How was Georgie treated under Lenin?
- Stalin in his role of commissar for national minors ordered Ordjonikidze (his representative in Georgia) to bring dissidents under control.
- He attacks one of the communist leaders - incident made worse as Stalin attempted to defend it.
- Lenin condemned the authoritarian approach used by Stalin.
- 1936 constitution gave full republic status to Georgia - didn't guarantee autonomy.
53
What was the Pale of Settlement?
- The region within which Jewish people were allowed to settle.
- From 1835 it included Lithuania, Poland and the south-western provinces.
54
How did the Pale of settlement change under Alex II?
- Jewish people were allowed to move to other regions.
55
How were Jewish people treated after Alex II?
- Period up to WW1 Jewish people were persecuted.
- Alex III believed that Jewish people were behind the Ignatiev Memorandum - leads to a mini pogrom.
56
What was the Igantiev memorandum?
- Ignatiev was Russia's ambassador to Constantinople.
- 1876, he sent a note to Serbian leaders, without official approval, saying that they could rely on Russian help if they declared war on Turkey.
57
What was the impact of the Igantiev Memorandum?
- 'little thunder' - mini pogrom - in the pale.
- Promoted by anti-semitic group - the Holy League.
58
What repressive measures were there on Jewish people from 1882 onwards?
- Confinement of Jewish people to the Pale of Settlement.
- the banning of Jewish people trying to buy land in prosperous rural areas.
- the removal of Jewish people from the electoral register of the Zemstva.
59
How were Jewish people treated under Nich II?
- Continued the anti-Jewish position taken by his father.
- Accused of being revolutionaries as some were affiliated with the SDw. ( the was a separate Jewish SD party called Bund.)
- Nich II does allow Jewish people to sit on the Duma.
60
How were Jewish people treated under the communists?
- By WW2, there was a ban on the Jewish religion - Jewish institutions were closed and there was a ban on specialist publications.
- Doctor's Plot (1952) - led to 15 Jewish leaders being executed.
- Under Khrushchev, there was a number of prominent jewish technical specialists being executed for anti communist activity.
61
What was the Doctor's Plot?
- Announcement made by Stalin in 1953 concerning 9 doctors, who had worked alongside a US Jewish group to murder high-ranking Soviet officials.
- 7 of the doctors were Jewish.
62
What was the 'decree on peace' (Oct 1917) ?
- Asked all the 'Belligerent Nations' to start peace talks based on 'no annexations or indemnities.'
- Bolsheviks felt that Russia had been let down by the entente and planned their divisions of land post war themselves.
- Allies showed minimal interest on the 'Decree on Peace' - leads to Lenin having to go to negotiate a separate peace with Germany.
63
How did Germany force the Bolsheviks to sign the treaty of Brest-Litovsk?
- Promised to give Ukrainians independence with the protection of Germany.
- Ordered a force of 700,000 troops to push deep into Russian territory- it took them 5 days to advance 150 miles towards Petrograd.
64
What were the terms of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk?
- Russia lost the following land: Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland.
65
What was the impact of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk on Russia?
- Lost 1/3 of agricultural land.
- Lost 1/3 of all railway tracks.
- Lost 1/3 of the population - roughly 55 million people.
- Lost 2/3s of the coalminers.
Lost nearly all available oil and most cotton textile production.
66
Why did Lenin agree to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk?
- Believed that the war would soon be over, Germany would be defeated and that territory would be recovered.
- Hoped that a communist revolution would occur in Germany.
- The agreement gave Bolsheviks the time to establish a government and address issues such as the economy.
67
What were the consequences of the Treaty of Brest Litovsk?
- Workers felt like they had been betrayed by the terms - encouraged them to support the left SRs and to join the Whites.
- Departure of Bukharin and the Left SRs from soviet government meant that the Bolsheviks were in control of Russia.
- Th burden of war being lifted face Lenin the opportunity to introduce repression and consolidate his power.
- Lenin pardons some of those from the provisional government.
- The treaty had exacerbated the problem of food shortages.
68
Evidence of opposition to the Treaty of Brest Litovsk?
- August 1918, a member of the SRs assassinated the head of the Petrograd Cheka.
- On the same day, Lenin was shot and wounded by Fanya Kaplan ( a member of the SRs).
69
What did Russia's expansion into Asia consist of?
- An attempt to turn central Asia into a colony that would provide Russia with raw materials.
- Attempts to spread Russian influence into the far East - especially eastern China, Japan and Korea.
70
By the start of WW2 what areas in Asia did the Soviet government have control over?
- Kazakhstan.
- Turkmenistan.
- Uzbekistan.
- Tajikistan.
- Azerbaijan.
71
Why did the tsars and communists want control over Asia?
- Central Asia was to provide working and living spaces for a large number of peasants from European Russia.
- The region was developed for cotton cultivation to serve the raw material needs of textile factories in European Russia.
- Central Asian territories bordered Afghanistan, India and China - created the prospect of further expansion and influence.
72
Why did Central Asia largely avoid Russification?
- The complexity of the societies and the difficulties with communication and transport meant that Russification wasn't achievable or desirable.
73
What was the Steppe Statute 1891?
- Granted 40 acres of land to peasant settlers - enough to establish a successful farm.
74
How were Centrals Asian minorities represented under Nich II?
- The All-Russian Mulsim League gained representation in the first Dumas.
- After the 1907 electoral law, Asian Muslim representation in the Duma was disallowed.
75
Why did the Russian governments attempt to draw on people from Central Asia for the war effort between 1915 and 1917 fail?
- The Muslim population resented the fact that conscription started during Ramadan.
- Disrespectful judgements were made about their military prowess.
76
What was the treatment of Central Asia like under the communists?
- the harsher more remote parts of the region were a dumping ground for people in the Soviet Union who needed punishing.
- Crimean Tartars were deported to South Kazhakstan in 1945 after having been accused of collaborating with the Germans.
77
How did treatment of those in Central Asia change under Khrushchev?
- 1957, decree 'On the rehabilitation of deported people- allowed groups who had been deported between 1941-1945 to return to their homelands.
- Involved himself with Central Asian affairs through his Virgin Land Policy.
78
What was Russian influence in the far east determined by?
- transport and communication.
- Before the completion of the Trans-Siberian railway in 1903 it could take up to 3 months to travel from Moscow to Sakhalin.
79
What events led to Russia gaining control of the Amur Basin and Manchuria?
- Amur Basin was secured in 1860 as a result of the efforts of Nikolai Muraviev - governor general of eastern-siberia.
-1860, the town of Vladivostok was established and became the naval base for Russia's pacific fleet.
- Russia makes a defensive treaty with China in the 1890s which allowed Russia to build the Chinese-Eastern-Railway - gave them access to mineral deposits found in Manchuria.
- 1897, Russia had also negotiated a deal to lease port Arthur.
- Chinese Boxer Rebellion (1899-19000 - gave the Russian government an opportunity to consolidate its power in Manchuria.
80
Evidence of Russia's poor relations with China under the communists:
- In 1927, Chiang - leader of the KMT ordered the extermination of trouble maker: communists, trade unionists and peasant leaders.
81
What was Russia's relationship with China like under Stalin?
- 1949, Mao and Stalin sign the Treaty of Friendship, alliance and mutual agreement.
- Until Stalin's death the relationship between the two remained cordial.
82
What was Russia's relationship with China like under Khrushchev?
- Cordial relationship that had been established under Stalin deteriorated.
- 1960's border disputes were emerging.
83
For how long did Russia keep jurisdiction over Port Arthur?
Until Stalin's death in 1953.
84
What did the Yalta conference in 1945 agree on in terms of Eastern Europe?
- Stalin wanted to consolidate the territory he had gained in Eastern Europe and wanted to establish pro-soviet governments in them.
85
Evidence of Stalin wanting to expand his sphere of influence:
- Speech in Feb 1946, Stalin stated that communism and capitalism were incompatible.
- March 1946, Churchill makes a speech in Missouri - iron curtain speech.
86
What was the Truman Doctrine?
- President Truman announces that he is prepared to send money, advice and equipment to any country that America viewed was under threat from communism.
87
What was Russia's response to Marshall Aid?
- Comecon - Stalin had forbade any Eastern Europe state from accepting money from the US.
88
Evidence that Eastern European states were being integrated into Russia after 1959?
- Economic integration:
- Five Year plans were established.
- Centralised economies set up.
- Agriculture was collectivised.
- Control was also achieved through bilateral treaties of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance, each of which contained:
- A ban on joining hostile alliances.
- A mutual defence agreement.
- Recognition of equality, sovereignty and non-interference in each other's affairs.
89
Where in Eastern-Europe was there resistance to Russian pressure?
- Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.
90
Who led the new communist government in Yugoslavia in 1945?
- Marshall Tito.
91
Why was Tito against Stalin's influence in Yugoslavia?
- Objected to the over centralised government that was associated with Stalin.
- Tito was aware that under Russian influence Yugoslavia's freedom to trade would be curtailed.
92
What were the consequences of Tito's resistance to Stalin in Yugoslavia?
- Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform (1948).
- Russia also withdrew economic support.
(Stalin hoped that this would lead to a decline of living standards in Yugoslavia and that Tito would be blamed.)
- Tito however manages to strengthen his relations with the West and got a loan from the IMF.
93
What radical changes to Tito make in Yugoslavia after the withdrawal of Russian support?
- Handed over the ownership and control of industry from the state to the worker's councils.
- Establishment of communes and a commune assembly - they organised their own welfare, health, education and culture programmes.
94
What was Russia's relationship with Yugoslavia like under Khrushchev?
- Khrushchev visited Tito and offered to help for the future development of Yugoslavia.
- Cordial relationships strengthened by Khrushchev's abandonment of Cominform in 1956.
95
What was Russia's relationship with Hungary like under Stalin?
- Stalin was influential in setting up the new regime.
- Those who opposed Stalin in Hungary suffered - eg interior minister Janos Kadar was imprisoned and tortured.
- By 1949, nearly 1/4 of a million Communist Party members had been expelled.
- Hungary was governed in a Stalinist manner under Rakosi.
- The Hungarian people became increasingly dissatisfied with the Stalinists.
96
What were the events of the Hungarian Uprising (1956) ?
- 23 Oct, huge demonstrations took place outside Budapest - calls made for reforms to be accelerated.
- Khrushchev reacts with our consulting Gero (leader of Hungary) by sending in 30,000 troops, artillery and tanks.
- Gero was replaced with Nagy - Nagy takes advantage of the more liberal stance taken by Khrushchev and expresses a desire to leave the Warsaw Pact.
- Nagy was replaced with Kadar.
97
What was the impact of the Hungarian uprising?
- Khrushchev had sent a message to Eastern European countries, that despite desalinisation, he was unwilling to lessen Soviet involvement in their countries.
- The west realised that Khrushchev was willing to risk a more global conflict occurring to maintain his authority - reluctance from the west to intervene.
- Communist China, under the leadership of Mao, supported Khrushchev's actions.
98
What was the communists relationship with Greece like?
- Exception to communist success in Eastern Europe.
- Civil war between the royalists and the communists broke out.
- Britain and the US supported the loyalists - Stalin kept his promise not to aid the communists.
1949, communists were defeated in Greece.
