The Making of the Middle East - Week 11

Question 1

Ottoman Empire:

Answer 1

• Ruled by one single Empire- Ottoman Empire- ruling since 15th century until 1918
• Structure - ruled by Islamic empire and multi-national- although not accurate- concept of nationalism did not really exist in empire.
• Empire = divided - distinguished by different languages, dialect, religions etc. as opposed to nation.
• Islam= largest religion, uniting most members of empire, however within Islam divisions.
• In empire all could live together in relative empire.

Question 2

Europeans and Middle East:

Answer 2

• Beginning on 19th century - first significant encounter with Europe
• First European incursion = Napoleon, although short-lived and returned with little of his army- beginning of introduction of Europe into Middle-East.
• Major problem for Europe = competition between two major forces- Britain & Russia- Russia did not have access to open sea to South- at time where maritime was major force only way Russia could have all year access to open sea (Med) = Ottoman Empire
• One goal of Russia = gain hold of territories in Ottoman Empire.
• Britain strongly against this- emphasised further after opening of Suez Canal 1869 - Became major passage to Far-East & India - Russian fleet in Med = threat to British access and control of Canal- one of major reasons why British took control of Egypt.
• France, Britain & Russia - protect specific minorities within Empire - Significant to weakening of Ottoman Empire - brought Europe deeper into territories & give individual powers greater hold of control in territory.
• Occurred not just through the diplomatic ownership but also the introduction of French education system, American missionaries etc. - Created academic institutions which spread Western style education - INCREASE WESTERN VALUES - modernity introduced through education.

Question 3

Impact of modernity on the Middle East:

Answer 3

• Modernity of 19th C Middle East - 1830s-1840s - Changes to OE legal system - e.g. Question of ownership of land - Regulated and introduced process of regulation which settled issues of purchase of land. Ownership of land made possible!!
• Introduction of modern facilities- Began with opening of Suez Canal and takeover of Egypt by Britain.
• Changed commercial relationship within OE - many professionals coming from across Med and Europe to Suez as hub - brought with them professional knowledge and facilities e.g. electricity, education & cars.
• Also developed modern cities and industry which was common and thriving in Europe - however lacking structures of organisation.
• Two major structures = secularism & rise of individualism - placing individual in centre of universe - X exist in Middle East - intellectually remained religious & tribal.
• More modern communities in Middle East were ones which were not part of Middle East and were not Muslim, many Christian/ Jewish.
• Practical changes did improve the intellectual state of Middle-East however a very slow process- came from outside in (Europe).

Question 4

Occupation of Middle East by Britain:

Answer 4

• 2nd Major Change was occupation of Middle East by Britain 1918. Created borders!! (one key to modernity in Europe = emergence of nation state)
• Link to idea of individual and sovereignty
• In Ottoman Empire concept of citizenship = loose - didn’t really have to be citizen - territory was very large and no national borders, only administrative- could travel across ‘borders’ without passport.
• Egypt became more of defined unit over time- small signs of development although X significant until Western influence.
• British occupation raised issues of nationalism which had not been previously addressed- people in Middle-East could struggle with idea of identity- however X accurate as many did not see this question.
• Impact of external interference highlighted through borders- Maps created around administrative areas of Middle East.
• Borders not always useful/ accurate- e.g. Iraq (not homogenous territory)

Question 5

Nation States:

Answer 5

• Some countries born out of imperialism- e.g. Libya & Jordan- contains many different tribal units and ethnicities- Increasing diversity as a result of developing nation state.
• Nation States - encourage war?
• As technology, education & industry were imported from Europe, core idea of nation/ nationalism also imported!!
• Significant in developed Iraq and Egyptian State - Most modern societies/ states in Middle East.
• Western modes of education implemented - encouraged modern organisation of government, industry & technology.
• Egypt- 1920s-40s- years of liberalism & democracies - political parties = active as well as parliament- similar with Iraq & Lebanon.

Question 6

Palestine

Answer 6

• Palestine- impact of great powers of Middle-East- only place where no nationality existed.
• No one single political unit that could put its mark on area.
• People were Palestinians- 1918= majority Muslim/ Arab
• Question of Palestinian nationalism= debated by scholars
• Some argue identity began in 1840s identity part of influence of West over Middle East, others claim it developed in late 19thC, early 20thC in response to the emergence of Zionism.

Question 7

Arab Nationalism:

Answer 7

• Arab nationalism (new development) became political issue during WWI- used more for political purposes than identity- did not have rules of what was basic Islamist society.
• Syria= hub of Arab nationalism
• Emerged in time when Western powers creating nation states - supposed to unite all the people of the region- FAILED - forces of national identity= stronger than Arab identity.
• Only Arabs = Palestinian Arabs - Palestinian nationality remained issue and argued it is still problem today.

Question 8

Problems of Middle East:

Answer 8

• Emergence of Zionism (later Israel) - reflected on some of problems of Middle East - most Western structured community in region which dealt with Western ideas which have been imposed from outside.
• Problem of modernity, particularly intellectually still issue, as evidenced in Arab Spring - Challenge to the core ideas of nationalism.
• To what extent it was social phenomenon- wanting greater freedom, education etc. is debated.
• Conclusions - Modernity came to Middle-East from Europe- forcing people to adjust to new forms of tech, education etc. (practical), but also intellectual issues e.g. place of individual in society (human rights as well as relationship between individual and state etc.)