The Living Environment (A2); Conservation Of Biodiversity Flashcards
What is global diversity?
The variety and abundance of life on Earth
What does our survival depend on as humans?
Other species which we sheere planet Earth; provide wide range of ecological life-support services & resources we exploit
What is required to maintain the resources we exploit?
Sustainable development & conservation
What are the different resources collected from plants and animals and for what uses?
-Wood; used in manufacture of buildings, tools, furniture
-Fibres; cotton, wool, paper, silk, rayon
-Oils; vegetable & animal oils used in foods, lubricants, soaps
-Fuels; wood, charcoal, alcohol, vegetable oils
Food; plants, animals, fungi, algae
What are examples of plant species that have the potential for commercial cultivation?
-Potato bean of North America has a↑ protein content
-Morama Bean from dry areas of S Africa has protein content similar to soya, is drought resistant
-Yeheb Tree from Somalia makes edible nuts, is drought resistant, can grow in poor soils
-Many species in spinach family can grow in soil w/ high salt content—> may be used in crop breeding programmes to increase salt tolerance of crops grown in areas where irrigation has causes soil salinisation
-Perennial (grows all year round so no need to buy new seeds each year) variety of maize was discovered in Mexico. Reduces need for ploughing & so soil erosion
-Kernza= perennial cereal w/ similar advantages to perennial maize
Which animal species been investigated for domestication and what are they better adapted for?
-American Bison, Common Ostrich, Cane Rats, Emu, Giant Land Snails
-Often better adapted to local conditions than traditional livestock species
What is biomimetics and what does it involve?
-Use of knowledge of adaptations of other species to improve designs of manufactured items
-All species have evolved over long periods of time, developing adaptations that increase their chance of survival
-Some include structural features that help us design improved engineering structures & equipment
Biomimetics- vehicle design; why and how have bird wings been utilised for vehicle design?
-Splayed wingtip feathers of soaring birds ↓ wind turbulence & drag
-Copying feather structures has improved aircraft wing designs to help ↑ fuel efficiency
Biomimetics- vehicle design; why and how have humpback whale flippers been utilised in vehicle design?
-Have tubercles (bumps) on flippers that channel water flow, ↑ hydrodynamic efficiency & allowing them to turn in tight circles when swimming around shoals of fish
-Has been applied to designs of ship rudders & aerogenerator blades
-New rudder design allows ships to turn in tighter circles. Aerogenerator blades can start to rotate at lower wind speeds than other designs so can generate more electricity
Biomimetics- vehicle design; why and how has shark skin been utilised in vehicle design?
-Has scales that reduce friction while swimming
-Ridges made by scales have been copied in new designs for aircraft & ship surface coatings to ↓ fuel consumption
Biomimetics- infection control; why and how has shark skin been used for infection control?
-Bacteria don’t easily stick to shark skin
-Coating material imitating shark skin is used in hospital operating theatres to help control bacterial infections
Biomimetics- architecture; why and how have the mounds that termites create above the ground been used in architecture design?
-Mounds that termites construct above ground absorb sunlight & become hot
-Hot air inside rises creating a convection current → draws state air out of lower parts of nest, creating a natural solar-driven ventilation system
-Air blowing over mound has a lower air pressure, draws air out of mound
-System has been copied in shopping complexes & office blocks to make natural ventilation & cooling w/out need for air conditioning
Biomimetics- architecture; why and how have birds and animals inspired architectural designs?
-Have structural features that give strength but are light
-Bird wing bones must be light & strong; are hollow, have internal struts preventing banes from bending too much/breaking
-This lightweight, strong structure has been copied in design of lightweight bridges & roofs
Biomimetics- adhesion; why and how have gecko lizards been used in designs for adhesion?
-Toes have pads providing strong adhesion
-Attempts are being made to copy this to provide adhesion w/out need for glue
Biomimetics- adhesion; why and how have the seeds of some plants been used in adhesion designs?
-Have burrs w/ hooks that can stick to fur of passing animals & aid seed dispersal
-Was copied in development of Velcro?
Biomimetics- adhesion; why and how have lotus flowers been used for adhesion designs?
-Have water-repelling properties
-Has been copied to make self-cleaning glass
Biomimetics- materials; why and how have some natural materials been used for synthetic material production?
-Have properties that can be applied to manufacture of synthetic materials
-The lightweight, flexible, strong silk made by spiders is being copied to make better car airbags & body armour
Medicines; how do some plants protect themselves from herbivores?
-Use thorns, spikes & bad tastes
-Produce chemicals toxic to animals that may eat them; many are alkaloids, can have beneficial medical effects in humans
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have chemicals produced by poppies been used to help humans?
Ave cultivated to make the painkillers morphine & codeine
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have chemicals produced by South American rainforest cinchona trees been used to help humans?
To produce quinine for malaria protection
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have the chemicals produced by willow trees been used to help humans?
Aspirin was extracted from willow trees; now manufactured synthetically
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have the chemicals produced by yew trees been used to help humans?
Taxol is extracted from them, used to treat a range of cancers, including breast, suarian, lung, bladder and prostate
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have the chemicals produced by Mexican yams from Central American rainforests been used to help humans?
Was the source of diosgenin, has been used to make steroid medicine including contraceptive pill & cortisone to ↓ inflammation & allergic reactions
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have the chemicals produced by tropical marine sponges in the Caribbean been used to help humans?
Drug AZT was discovered in them, is used to treat HIV/aids
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have the chemicals produced by shark liver lipids been used to help humans?
Alkylglycerols & polyunsaturated fatty acids are found in them, can suppress growth of cancer tumours
Medicines- plant chemicals; how have shark blood antibodies been used to help humans?
-Drug AD 114 is being tested as a cure for fibrosis of lungs
-Its based on an antibody extracted from shark blood
Medicines- plant chemicals; why are chemical substances with medicinal properties found in species a powerful argument to conserve other species?
-Only a very small proportion of species exist that have been studied for medicinal substances they may contain
-Species, or preferably entire habitats, should be conserved for the medicinal substances they may contain
Physiological research; how has studying marsupial young allowed better understanding of health problems in babies?
-Marsupials give birth to their young at a very early stage of development; they then develop in their mother’s pouch
-Studying a developing kangaroo/wallaby in pouch is easier than studying a human baby of the same age inside its mother’s womb
-This has helped in understanding developmental problems in unborn babies
Physiological research; how has studying hippopotamus skin helped improve health treatment?
-Secretes hipposudoric acid; a natural sunscreen & antimicrobial agent
-This is being studied to help improve treatment of burns victims
Physiological research; how have marine sponges been used for surgical developments?
-Produce proteins that prevent the rejection of grafts from other individuals
-These proteins are being developed to prevent rejection of human organs after transplant surgery
Physiological research; how have the embryos of Purple Sea Urchins been used to further medical developments?
-Used to test whether new medicines are teratogenic & could cause abnormal embryo development in humans
-Doesn’t threaten sea urchin populations as they’re a common species & a single female can produce 1/2 million eggs
-It’s not ethically acceptable to carry out tests directly on humans
Physiological research; how has studying dolphins and bats helped the development of medical diagnosis?
-Use high frequency sound to echo-locate their food
-Has enabled development of new ultrasound scanners that give better 3-D images for medical diagnosis
Physiological research; why and how has the study of squid nerves enabled a better understanding of diseases?
-Human nerve cells → very small & difficult to study, particularly the sodium/potassium pump across cell membranes
-Squid nerves = much larger & so easier to study
-Has provided better understanding of human heart disease, strokes, cancer, Alzheimer’s disease & kidney disease
Physiological research; why and how has the study of armadillos helped develop medical research?
-Are among the few animals that can catch the bacterial disease leprosy
-They’re used in the study of disease & vaccine production
Pest control species; what kind of natural predators’ populations can be increased and how?
-Ladybugs & ground beetles
-Can be ↑ by providing suitable habitats like hedgerows & beetle banks
Pest control species; what can be introduced to control weeds and especially which ones? + example
-Herbivores
-Especially if weed species is non-indigenous & isn’t eaten by indigenous herbivores
-Prickly pear cactus became a weed after its introduction to Australia from South America. Cactoblastis moth was successfully introduced from South America to control it
Pest control species; what can be introduced to control whitefly pests on crops like tomatoes?
Encarsia Formosa, a parasitic wasp which is released in greenhouses
Pest control species; what can be used to control insect crop pests and how?
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a pathogenic bacterium
Produces proteins toxic to insects
Genetic resources- crop breeding programmes; what are Crop Wild Relative species (CWR) and why are they used?
-Domesticated crops often lack genetic diversity as have been produced from a limited number of original plants
-Search for new characteristics that can be bred into commercial crops focuses on wild plants of the same species/close relatives; often called Crop Wild Relative species (CWR)
Genetic resources- crop breeding programmes; where are many CWR species found and why?
-Areas where environmental degradation threatens their survival, eg Middle East, Central America, SE Asia
-Traditional varieties, grown in subsistence farming areas are also likely to have desirable characteristics not found in commercial varieties
Genetic resources- CWR species characteristics; what are examples of disease resistance being introduced from CWR species?
-Sugar cane has been protected from sugar cane mosaic virus by cross-breeding w/ a wild sugar cane variety from Indonesia
-A single wild species of tomato has provided genetic characteristics for resistance to 9 major diseases of commercially grown tomato varieties
Genetic resources- CWR species characteristics; what are examples of salt-tolerance being introduced from CWR species?
-Introduction of salt-tolerant characteristics from wild varieties of rice & barley has led to breeding of commercially cultivated varieties that can be grown in saline soil
-Sea kale= salt tolerant & has been studies for possible use in breeding programmes w/ closely related crop species
Genetic resources- CWR species characteristics; what is an example of drought resistance being introduced from CWR species?
Varieties of cacao, the source of chocolate, that are more drought-tolerant have been developed by cross-breeding w/ wild plants from Amazon rainforest
Genetic resources- CWR species characteristics; what is an example of high yields being introduced from CWR species?
Oil palm yields have been increased by 25% by cross-breeding w/ wild varieties found in central Africa
Genetic resources- CWR species characteristics; what are examples of improved taste/appearance being introduced from CWR species?
-Selective breeding from characteristics like post-harvest shelf life/improved appearance may result in loss of other desirable qualities like good taste. These characteristics can be re-introduced by further selective breeding
-More attractive, sweeter pineapples w/ yellower flesh have been produced by selective breeding since 1990s
Genetic resources- CWR species characteristics; what is an example of nutrient uptake being introduced from CWR species?
Many recently developed wheat varieties don’t form a strong link w/ mycorrhizal fungi in soil, reducing their ability to absorb nutrients like phosphate from soil
-Breeding programmes w/ wild wheat are increasing nutrient uptake efficiency by forming better associations betw wheat plants & mycorrhizal fungi
Genetic resources; what are Centres of Diversity and what are they also called?
Russian biologist Nikolai Vavilov studied crop genetics in early 1900s & realised some areas of the world had high conc of close relatives of important crop species
-These were named Centres of Diversity/Centres of Origin/Vavilov Centres
Genetic resources; what are the different Centres of Diversity?
-Mediterranean Centre; wheat, oats, pea, clover, olive
-Middle Eastern centre; wheat, barley, lentil, apple, pear
-Central Asian centre; wheat, peas, lentils, cotton, onion, spinach, carrot, grape, apple, pear
-Chinese centre; millet, soya, onion, cucumber, pear, peach, apricot, sugarcane, opium poppy
-Siam, Malaysia, Javan Centre; sugarcane, banana, breadfruit
-Indian centre; rice,beans, cucumber, radish, orange, sugarcane, banana
-Ethiopian centre; wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, coffee, okra
-S American centres; potato, maize, tomato, peanut, rubber tree, pepper, Brazil nut
-Central America centre; potato, maize, tomato, peanut, rubber tree, pepper, Brazil nut
Genetic resources; what is the disadvantage of Centres of Diversity?
Many of them in parts of the world where environmental degradation threatens survival of remaining wild plants
Genetic resources; what is a gene-pool and why may large populations not always have a large one?
-Total number of diff genes present in all individuals in a population of a particular species
-As they may all be descendants of closely related individuals so are all genetically similar
Genetic resources- gene-pool problems; why are domestic species often being produced from a very small number of original ancestors an issue?
-Lack wide variety of characteristics found in wild/traditional subsistence cultivars (varieties)
-If they’re genetically similar they’ll have similar adaptations & may all be susceptible to same environmental changes
-There’s also a greater risk of inbreeding where disadvantageous recessive genes could cause issues
Genetic resources- gene-pool problems; what does the desirability of a large gene-pool mean?
-Conserving few representatives of each species isn’t enough
-A wide range of genetically different, comparatively distantly-related individuals must be protected
Genetic resources- gene-pool problems; how and why do gene-pools differ due to geographical reasons + how can they be protected?
-Each region, within geographical range of particular species, is likely to have some genes unique to that area
-These will exist due to need to be adapted to the specific local conditions in each region
-So, to protect all genes in the gene pool, each species should be protected over its entire range, not just few convenient areas
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is atmospheric composition influenced by ecosystem services?
-Composition of atmosphere is regulated by many abiotic & biotic processes that act to cancel each other out, creating a ‘dynamic equilibrium’
-As the processes may be balanced, w/ no overall change, their actions & importance often go unnoticed
-Eg, conc of CO² & O² are largely regulated by photosynthesis & aerobic respiration
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is the hydrological cycle influenced by ecosystem services?
Evapotranspiration from vegetation produces large amount of water vapour that forms clouds, controls surface temp, ↑ precipitation
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how are biogeochemical cycles influenced by ecosystem services?
-Living organisms are involved in many processes in biogeochemical cycles like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus cycles
-Many of these are done by microbes like bacteria & fungi
-W/out these processes, waste products would build up & important nutrient resources would become depleted
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is soil maintenance influenced by ecosystem services?
-Soil= vital for growth & survival of almost all plants, providing support, water & nutrients. Also regulates water cycle, producing even more river flow &↓ flooding
-Processes involved in breakdown & decomposition of dead organic matter involves invertebrate animals, fungi & bacteria
-Organic matter & humus produced help hold soil together, while decomposition produces organic acids; aid weathering + breakdown of rocks, helping to produce more soil, release more nutrients
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how are interspecies relationships influenced by ecosystem services?
No species can live in ecological isolation as survival relies on other species for a range of resources & ecological services
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is food influenced by ecosystem services?
All heterotrophs rely on other organisms as source of energy & nutrients
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is pollination of flowers by insects influenced by ecosystem services?
-Allows plants to have dispersed populations as insects search over long distances for flowers
-Insect pollination is more successful than wind pollination; very unreliable over long distances
-Plants w/ insect-pollinated flowers save energy as they don’t need to produce as much pollen as wind-pollinated plants
-Many plants have evolved flowers that attract particular insects & many insects have evolved to be able to feed from flowers of particular species. -These specialisations give pollinating insects exclusive source of food, ↓ risk of pollen being carried to other plant species, eg Darwin’s Orchid in Madagascar w/ Sphinx Moth
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is pollination of flowers by animals influenced by ecosystem services?
-Especially important in habitats like forests where trees ↓ wind velocity so wind pollination wouldn’t be effective
-Most animal species pollinating flowers are insects, especially bees but butterflies, moths, beetles & wasps are also important
-Other pollinators include some bird species, bats & monkeys. The animals visits the flowers to drink the sugar-rich nectar, picking up pollen when they do so
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is seed dispersal by animals influenced by ecosystem services?
-Has many advantages over dispersal by wind as it’s not haphazard & seeds may be carried larger distances. Since animals live in same habitat as plant, they’re likely to carry seeds to locations where seeds can survive
-Seeds can also be larger, then carried by wind =↑ survival as seeds have more nutrients for growth of young plants made when seeds germinate
-Plants often attract animals using bright coloured fruit that tastes good
-Seeds may be dropped by animal/seeds may pass through animal’s gut & be carried to suitable having in faecal material; acts as a fertiliser. Seeds of many plant species are stimulated to germinate by their passage through intestines of animals that disperse them
Genetic resources- Ecosystem services; how is influenced by ecosystem services?
One species may provide habitats for other species;
-Tress provide nest sites for birds
-Hermit crabs live inside shells of dead molluscs
-Tress control abiotic conditions beneath canopy like light levels, humidity, wind velocity, temp—> may provide conditions suitable for species that can’t survive in more exposed locations
Threats to biodiversity- direct exploitation; how has food exploitation directly threatened biodiversity?
-Many species have been overexploited to provide food for humans, eg turtles, cod, swordfish, tuna, many herbivores
-Some species have become extinct, like the Dodo, Great Auk, Passenger Pigeon
Threats to biodiversity- direct exploitation; how has fashion exploitation directly threatened biodiversity?
Animal skins have been used for clothing throughout human history. However, certain animals have been over-exploited for fashion, eg;
-Fur coats & accessories; leopard, snow leopard, ocelot, tiger, fur seals (neatly hunted to extinction for their skins in late 1900s)
-Leather bags & shoes; crocodiles & alligators
-Feathers from kingfishers, parrots & ostriches
Threats to biodiversity- direct exploitation; how have pet and entertainment exploitation directly threatened biodiversity?
-Pets; parrots, lizards, snakes, tortoises, tropical fish
-House plants; ‘air plants’ (Tillandsia), some tropical exotics & many insectivorous plants are collected in wild to be sold
-Zoos; used to be common to collect wild animals for zoo collections. This is rarer now & normally only occurs for conservation reasons, like need to ↑ gene pool for captive breeding programme
-Aquaria; marine fish don’t breed well in captivity as required conditions aren’t understood. Most captive marine fish have been taken from the wild
-Marine life centres; many dolphins & orcas (killer whales) kept in captivity were caught in wild
Threats to biodiversity- direct exploitation; how has the exploitation of furniture & ornaments directly threatened biodiversity?
Many species have been selectively collected to make furniture/ornamental items;
-A lot of furniture’s made w/ timber from tropical rainforest trees like mahogany, teak, ramin
-Black piano keys were made w/ tropical ebony wood & white keys were made w/ elephant ivory
-Jewellery has been made w/ shark’s teeth, turtle shell, mollusc shells
-Coral & sea shells have been collected & sold as tourist souvenirs
Threats to biodiversity- direct exploitation; how and why has the exploitation of traditional medicines directly threatened biodiversity?
-Demand for traditional medicines, esp Asia, has led to large numbers of selected species being collected. There’s little scientific evidence they’re effective as medicines & ever if they were they may become unavailable as future pop. ↓. Many species are killed for traditional medicine trade;
-Tigers; diff parts are used in belief that they’ll cure many issues, eg claws as sedative, tail for skin disease, dung ter alcoholism, brain for laziness
-Rhinoceros; horn is used as supposed cure for many medical issues from nosebleeds to smallpox
-Seahorses; used to make medicines in belief they treat infertility, baldness, asthma, arthritis
Threats to biodiversity- direct exploitation; how has the exploitation of other products directly threatened biodiversity?
-Very fine oil was extracted from whale blubber & spermaceti from heads of Sperm Whales
-It was used until the 1970s in manufacture of products like lamp oil, candles, soap, lubricating oil, cosmetics, perfume.it has been replaced w/ oil from jojoba plant
Threats to biodiversity; why and how has the eradication of predators and competitors threatened biodiversity?
Many species have been killed as they threaten humans/interfere w/ human activities, eg;
-Animals which threaten animals, eg sharks, poisonous snakes & crocodiles
-Pathogen vectors, eg malaria mosquitoes, tsetse flies
-Predators of livestock, eg wolves, puma, lions, birds of pray, herons, seals
Agricultural pests, eg insects, fungi, birds, molluscs
-Wild herbivores that eat crops/compete w/ livestock, eg rabbits, deer
-Forestry pests, eg wood-boring beetles, deer, squirrels, beavers
Threats to biodiversity- changes in abiotic factors; what are the ways in which human activities have changed water availability + effects of this?
-Land drainage has affected large areas of wetland as land has been reclaimed & farmland has expanded
-Over-exploitation of groundwater resources can ↓ water table in ground → may cause surface wetland habitats to dry out, making it impossible for wetland species to survive
-Water level in tropical rivers may naturally rise & fall w/ wet & dry seasons
-Sandbanks & riverbanks exposed during dry season may be crucial nest site for birds, freshwater turtles & lizards
-Hydroelectric power schemes may cause sudden changes in water levels that flood nests, killing eggs
Threats to biodiversity- changes in abiotic factors; what are the ways in which human activities have changed dissolved oxygen levels + effects of this?
-Levels in water can be ↓ by hot water discharges from power stations/discharging organic wastes like sewage, which deoxygenates the water as it decomposes. ↓ in dissolved O² can ↓ survival of aerobic organisms like fish
-Marshland plants like sundew can be found in areas w/ waterlogged anaerobic soils where aren’t out-competed by taller plants. Anaerobic soils have ↓ nitrogen levels so large plants w/ high N requirement can’t live there
-Trapping & digesting insects provides sundews w/ source of N not present in nutrient-deficient soil
-Drainage schemes producing more aerobic soil may allow taller competitors to colonise area, causing sundew to die out
Threats to biodiversity- changes in abiotic factors; what are the ways in which human activities have changed temperatures + effects of this?
Can affect wildlife species in many ways. Growth/survival of some species will increase but others may not be adapted to survive change. Examples;
-Global climate change; temp changes will cause changes in distribution of species as no longer colonise areas which become suitable/die out in areas where they can no longer survive
-Hot effluent water; ↑ in water temp can ↑ growth of aquatic vegetation, providing more food for aquatic animals/may ↑ rate of decomposition, causing deoxygenation
Threats to biodiversity- changes in abiotic factors; what are the ways in which human activities have changed pH levels + effects of this?
-Mine drainage water & pollutant gases from burning fossil fuels/smelting metals can create acidic conditions
-These can denature cell proteins of exposed tissues
-Some organisms/tissues are particular vulnerable to acidic conditions like fish eggs & gills or invertebrates w/ calcium-based exoskeletons, eg crayfish
Threats to biodiversity- changes in abiotic factors; what are the ways in which human activities have changed water turbidity + effects of this?
-Activities like ploughing, mining, dredging may ↑ water turbidity
-This can ↓ light penetration & prevent submerged aquatic plants from photosynthesising
-Can also kill filter-feeding organisms like many bivalve molluscs whose gills become blocked
Threats to biodiversity- changes in abiotic factors; what are the ways in which human activities have caused physical damage?
Wide range of human actions can cause physical damage like discarding litter/old fishing gear
Threats to biodiversity- changes in biotic factors; how have human actions impacted pollination and what is the result of this?
-Use of pesticides & loss of wild flowering plants has ↓ populations of many insect species, including many bee species
-Many plants rely on pollen being transported betw their flowers by insects
It insects were to die out, plants wouldn’t be able to reproduce
Threats to biodiversity- changes in biotic factors; how have human actions impacted seed dispersal species and what is the result of this?
-Animals that eat seeds & fruit can be vital in successful dispersal of seeds & so future plant survival
-Many large herbivore species are endangered, eg elephants, rhinos, hippos, gorillas & many monkey species
-Conservation of these herbivores would help protect plant species relying on them
-Elephants diaper he seeds of most tree species where they’re found. Unlike most large mammal herbivores, they aren’t ruminants so don’t repeatedly chew their food (would destroy seeds). They’re also not territorial so would spread seeds over large areas than most herbivores
Threats to biodiversity- changes in biotic factors; how have human actions impacted food chains and what is the result of this?
-Decline in populations of some species has been caused by over-exploitation of their food by humans, like puffins which have ↓ as sandeels have been over-fished
-Over-exploitation of one species can cause ↑ of another. Eg, over-collection of turtle eggs has caused ↓ in turtle numbers & so ↑ in their food species, including jellyfish which eat zooplankton. So, their numbers have ↑ due to overfishing of competitor species which also eat zooplankton, eg sardines, herring, anchovies
-↓ in pop. of sea otters on west coast of USA caused ↑ in sea urchins they eat. Sea urchins over-grazed kelp seaweeds vital for survival of many species, incl sea otters
Threats to biodiversity- introduced species; what impact do introduced species have on ecosystems?
-Community of species naturally found in an area will be adapted to its abiotic & biotic surroundings
-If a species is introduced, it may have adaptations giving it a greater chance of survival than indigenous species, which may ↓or die out
-Many species’ introductions have had catastrophic effects on pop. of indigenous species. Pop. in isolated areas like islands have been have been v seriously affected; often have evolved from small number of OG colonising species & may not be adapted to survive new threats, eg mammal predators
Threats to biodiversity- introduced species; what are examples of introduced competitors and how have they been harmful?
-Grey squirrel was introduced to UK from N America. In many years, it has out-competed indigenous red squirrel as it’s better adapted to exploit available food; can digest acorns from oak trees which red squirrels can’t, is also larger & can compete more successfully for nest sites
-Rhododendrons were introduced to UK from Asia due to their ornamental flowers & as they provide cover for game birds like pheasants. They’re v invasive & being evergreen shade the ground + prevent regrowth of native vegetation. They also release toxins inhibiting growth of other plants
Threats to biodiversity- introduced species; what are examples of introduced predators and how have they been harmful?
-Range of European Water Vole in UK rivers has been ↓ by American Mink that escaped from fur farms
-Many species in Australia are threatened by Came Toads which were introduced from S America to control insect nests in sugar cane plantations. Toads didn’t control insect pests but became serious predators to others
-Ground nesting birds on many oceanic islands like New Zealand, Australia & Hawaii are threatened by introduction of cats, rats, pigs, dogs
-Introduction of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, rabbits has had huge impact on vegetation & so wildlife communities relying on it. Impact is often greatest where there’s few indigenous herbivores, eg oceanic islands like Mauritius
-Nile Perch introduced into Lake Victoria to improve food supplies, but ate indigenous food species like cichlids, many of which are now extinct
Threats to biodiversity- introduced species; what are examples of introduced pathogens and how have they been harmful?
Humans may introduce pathogens, causing ↓ in wildlife pop. Pathogens are often carried by other species
-Grey Squirrel was introduced from N America to UK, brought squirrel pox virus, which doesn’t kill Grey Squirrel but doesn’t kill indigenous Red Squirrel
-White-Clawed Crayfish is indigenous to UK but its pop. has ↓ after intro of several non-indigenous cray fish species, eg Signal Crayfish from N America (Carries fungal pathogen crayfish plague, kills White-Clawed Crayfish)
-Many tree pathogens have been introduced into UK, include Dutch Elm Disease, Ash Dieback, Sudden Oak Dueath. Most tree pathogens were brought into UK on vegetation/in soil when plants were imported
Threats to biodiversity- introduced species; what are examples of introduced species that can hybridise and how have they been harmful?
-If any introduced species is very closely related to an indigenous species then cross-breeding may produce fertile hybrids
-Natural gene-pool will be changed by introduction of gene it wouldn’t normally contain
-Eg, Red deer is indigenous to UK but is threatened by hybridisation w/ introduced Sika Deer. The Wildcat pop. in Scotland is also threatened by hybridisation w/ domestic cats
Threats to biodiversity- introduced species; what are examples of a loss of species that control abiotic factors and why is this harmful?
-Some species change habitats & produce abiotic features that other species need for survival
-Eg, African Forest elephants create clearings & water-holes that many other species rely on for water. Beavers build dams, creating small lakes colonised by many aquatic species. If these species are lost, many other will decline
Threats to biodiversity- habitat destruction; how have human activities caused habitat destruction?
Human activities may have impacts that cause complete habitat destruction, usually due to land-use change, including;
-Deforestation
-Ploughing of grassland
-Reservoir creation
-Mineral extraction, esp open-cast mining
-Urban expansion
Setting conservation priorities; what are the questions asked when deciding the best strategies to conserve wildlife?
-What is the present day situation; species present, populations, current changes in abiotic factors?
-Which species should be conserved? The conservation of one species may be beneficial/harmful to other species
-What actions need to be taken to conserve desired species?
-Can the outcomes be accurately predicted?
-Can the impacts be monitored accurately?
Setting conservation priorities; what are the roles of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)?
-Coordinating global data on biodiversity conservation
-Increasing understanding of the importance of biodiversity
-Deploying nature-based solutions to global challenges in climate, food, sustainable development
Setting conservation priorities; how are species in the IUCN categorised?
According to their vulnerability to extinction, known as the IUCN Red List;
-Extinct; no known individuals remain
-Extinct in the wild; only survive in captivity
-Critically endangered; extremely high risk of extinction in wild
-Endangered; high risk of extinction in wild
-Vulnerable; high risk of becoming endangered
-Near threatened; likely to become endangered in near future
-Least concern; at lowest risk of becoming endangered
-Data-deficient; insufficient information for species to be categorised
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; what species was recategorised in 2016 and why?
Plains Zebra has been recategorised from Least Concern to Near Threatened due to its declining population, mainly due to habitat loss
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; which species were recategorised in 2016 and why?
-Successful conservation of the Iberian Lynx has resulted in re-categorisation from Critically Endangered to Endangered; a captive breeding programme & protection of 2 areas of suitable habitat have allowed its pop. to treble in 15 years
-The Tiger remains in the endangered category, although 3/6 sub-species are critically endangered; its range continues to shrink
-The White-headed Vulture was Vulnerable, but has been re-categorised as Critically Endangered as population has ↓ due to poisoning & persecution
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; which species were assessed in 2014 and why?
-There’s about 100 species of lemur, all endemic to the Madagascar island. Of these, 22 are Critically Endangered & 48 are Endangered; habitat loss & hunting for bushmeat are the major threats
-Population of Bearded Vulture/Lammergeier is ↑ in Europe but ↓ worldwide due to poisoning, competition for food & increasingly, collisions w/ power lines. It’s been re-categorised from Least Concern to Near Threatened
-Fregate Island Beetle of Fregate Island in the Indian Ocean was categorised as Threatened. A programme to eradicate rats from island has resulted in population ↑ so it’s been re-categorised as Vulnerable
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; which species were assessed in 2013 and why?
-Okapi is only found in forests in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Its population has ↓ due to hunting, habitat loss & difficulties in carrying out conservation programmes in areas w/ military conflict. It’s been recategorised from Near Threatened to Endangered
-Kori Bustard lives in sub-Saharan Africa. Its population is ↓ due to hunting for food & traditional medicines, habitat loss, deaths due to collisions w/ power lines. It’s been re-categorised from Least Concern to Near Threatned
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; how many species have been selected for categorisation and why is this number so small?
-Total of about 85,000 species have been assessed & categorised; a small proportion of the total number of species existing
-As categorising a species involves a great deal of research, it’s important to select species for categorisation carefully
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; why are species in habitats under particular threat used as a criteria to select species for categorisation?
Their status may indicate the status of the rest of the community of species, like the decline of lemurs in Madagascar being used to predict decline of other species
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; why are evolutionarily unique species used as a criteria to select species for categorisation?
-May be categorised, eg if there are few closely related species. EDGE species are ‘Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered’
-They have few close relatives & are often the only surviving member of their genus + can be last surviving genus of their evolutionary family, eg Bactrian Camel, Pygmy Hippo, Northern Bald Ibis & Secretary Bird
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; why are endemic species used as a criteria to select species for categorisation?
-Isn’t found in any other area, so if there’s a change in threats to its survival & it dies out locally, there will be no surviving populations elsewhere
-Many endemic species w/ smaller ranges are found on islands, eg Galapagos, Seychelles, Hawaii, Madagascar. These include Gozo Wall Lizard, Red Ruffed Lemur, Aldabra Giant Tortoise
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; what are keystone species and why are they used as a criteria to select species for categorisation?
-Has important role in maintaining ecological structure of community
-Importance usually great compared w/ their low abundnce/pop. biomass
-Possible roles incl; predation of potentially dominant species, provision of food, seed dispersal or creation of structural features of habitat, eg Jaguar in S America help to balance mammalian jungle ecosystem w/ their consumption of 87 diff species of prey. Other eg; Grey Wolves, beavers
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; how do African Forest Elephants have impacts on their habitats that benefit other species as a keystone species?
-Keep paths through forest open
-Spread seeds of most tree species
-Keep water holes open; provide other species w/ water & mineral nutrients. Many plant & animal species live in clearings but couldn’t live in dense forest
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; what are flagship species and why are they used as a criteria to select species for categorisation?
-Have a high public profile
-Raising support to protect flagship species may have wide benefit for wildlife conservation in general. May incl species in same habitat that are likely to attract support themselves
-Tigers, elephants, Giant Pandas, Orang Utans are more likely to raise support than spiders, bats, fungi, or moths which may be just as ecologically important
Setting conservation priorities- IUCN; why is the degree of population dispersal used as a criteria to select species for categorisation?
-When global population of species is fragmented into number of isolated populations its important to ensure viable local populations are maintained
-Fragmentation of habitats may not reduce total habitat area by much but may produce populations that’ll each die out as they lack sufficient resources/have small gene pools + will suffer from inbreeding
-Where entire population of species is found in 1 area it may be vulnerable to any local change in conservation success
-Chimpanzees & gorillas are found in several countries but all Bonobos (Pygmy chimpanzees) live in the forests of a single country
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- legal protection of habitats and species; what legislation does The Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981 cover?
-Designated protected areas like Sites of Special Scientific Interest & Marine Conservation Zones
-Protection of wild birds & nests; most birds are protected except some ‘pest’ species & game birds that can be legally hunted
-Protection of mammal species, eg otters, Hazel Dormouse, Red Squirrel, badgers & their setts (tunnels)
-Uprooting of wind plants; generally illegal
-Bats; may not be disturbed & woodworm treatment chemicals that are used in roofs where bats are present mustn’t be toxic to bats
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- legal protection of habitats and species; in what ways can the legal designation of protected areas protect habitats & species?
-Protection of species
-Protection of habitats
-Restrictions in activities within protected area
-Restrictions on activities outside protected area
-Management agreements betw landowner & designating organisation
-Access restrictions
-International cooperation
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- legal protection of habitats and species; which protected areas in the UK are designated mainly for wildlife conservation?
-Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSI)
-National Nature Reserve (NNR)
-Special Area of Conservation (SAC)
-Special Protection Area (SPA)
-Natura 2000 sites (SACs & SPAs)
-Ramsar Sites
-Marine Nature Reserve (MNR)
-Local Nature Reserve (LNR)
-Marine Protected Area (MPA)
-Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ)
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- trade controls; what are CITES and how are species grouped within it?
-The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
-Main international agreement regulating international trade in wildlife
Selected species are are grouped in lists called appendices;
-Appendix I; includes species threatened w/ extinction, so all international trade banned except movement for conservation breeding programmes, eg all great apes, all big cats, all rhinos, Blue Whale
-Appendix II; includes species that may be threatened w/ extinction if trade isn’t closely controlled. Trade is permitted from countries where species is relatively well protected so limited exploitation doesn’t threaten their survival, eg Honduras Mahogany, Common Hippopotamus, Green Iguana
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- organisations which aim to achieve sustainable exploitation; what is the main aim of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) and why?
-To regulate & manage whaling
-Populations of many whale species had been so depleted that commercial whaling was banned in 1986 until time in future that populations have recovered enough to be able to withstand commercial whaling
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- organisations which aim to achieve sustainable exploitation; how do the IWC conserve whale stocks to control whaling and ensure sustainable exploitation?
-Total protection for certain species
-Designation of whale sanctuaries
-Setting limits on numbers & sizes of whales that can be taken
-Protection of suckling mothers & their calves
-Carrying out research into whale biology & activities that threaten whales like ship strikes & entanglement w/ fishing nets
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- organisations which aim to achieve sustainable exploitation; what kind of whaling does the IWC allow?
-‘Aboriginal substinence’; whaling permitted for cultural groups that have traditionally hunted whales fer food, eg Inuit (Eskimos) of Alaska that have a catch quota of about 55 bowhead whales each year. People of St Vincent & Grenadines in Carribean can kill about 2 humpback whales each year
-‘Special Permit Whaling’ or ‘Scientific Whaling’; involves killing of whales for scientific research. Japan has used this approach to justify its whaling but in 2014 the International Court of Justice declared its whaling programme wasn’t for research
-Commercial whaling; Iceland & Norway use IWC regulation to set own quota for commercial whaling.in 2014, they killed about 800 Fin & Minke Whales
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- organisations which aim to achieve sustainable exploitation; what is the Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU CFP) and its aim?
-Series of regulations that control fishing within territorial waters of European Union
-Aim is to ensure fishing & aquaculture are environmentally, economically & socially sustainable & that they provide a source of healthy food for EU citizens
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- organisations which aim to achieve sustainable exploitation; what regulations does the Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU CFP) typically cover?
Catch quotas to limit total mass that can be landed
-Size limits, so fewer small fish are killed & have a chance to grow
-Net mesh-size regulations that allow smaller fish to escape, survive & have the chance to grow larger + breed
-Limits on fishing effort, like maximum size of fishing boat/number of days fishing can take place
-Ban on discarding of unwanted fish
Methods of conserving biodiversity 1: legislation/protocols- organisations which aim to achieve sustainable exploitation; what are the aims of the International Tropical Trade Organisation (ITTO) and its limitation?
-Aims to encourage sustainable management of tropical forests
-In 1990, members agreed to strive for international trade of tropical timber from sustainably managed forests by 2000, w/out unsustainable exploitation
-But, there was little evidence of success by 2000 & this has continued to be the case
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what does ex-situ conservation involve and why may it be done instead of in situ?
-For some endangered species, in situ conservation (on-site conservation/conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant/animal species) won’t ensure their survival, so ex-situ may be required
-Involves conservation away from where they’d usually live & often involves breeding of species in captivity so some young produced can be released to boost wild population
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what are the factors that influence decisions about captive breeding & release programmes?
-Is the wild population threatened?
-Is there a genetically diverse captive population?
-Is in-situ conservation being successful?
-Is keeping a captive population realistic?
-Is release into the wild likely to be successful, now or in the future?
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why do habitat size requirements make it difficult for many species to be kept in captivity?
-Some species require such large habitats that they can’t be kept in captivity
-Often the case for large animals like whales
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why do food requirements make it difficult for many species to be kept in captivity?
-Some species have feeding requirements that can’t easily be provided
-For example, insectivorous bats, fish that eat plankton
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why do species interrelationships make it difficult for many species to be kept in captivity?
Some species have complicated species interrelationships like plants w/ symbiotic mycorrhizal root fungi relationships, plants w/ specific pollinators or Large Blue Butterfly that overwinters in ants’ nests
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why do financial constraints make it difficult for many species to be kept in captivity?
Keeping animals in zoos or plants in botanic gardens is expensive & there isn’t enough money available to keep all endangered species in captivity
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why have conditions for breeding meant that many species in captivity haven’t been able to breed successfully?
-For many species, precise timing of breeding is vital to ↑ survival chances of their young
-Breeding is often triggered by stimuli like day length, light level, temp, amount of food/stored body fat
-If these essential conditions aren’t known & aren’t provided, they won’t breed
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why have population interactions + breeding success meant that many species in captivity haven’t been able to breed successfully?
-In the wild, breeding pairs of many birds may choose isolation while non-breeding individuals live elsewhere
-In captivity, mixing of breeding & non-breeding individuals may cause conflict & reduce survival of eggs & chicks
-Some species breed most successfully if breeding adults are separate from other adults
-Some species breed most successfully if there’s a choice of possible partners but others pair for life
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why has breeding habitat meant that many species in captivity haven’t been able to breed successfully?
-Some species can only breed if they have a suitable habitat Ike one that includes a suitable site for courtship display, social grouping, area for hunting, or nest site
-For example, flamingos only breed in large groups. Mirrors around a captive population give the illusion of a larger population
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why has gene pool size meant that many species in captivity haven’t been able to breed successfully?
-Most captive breeding populations have small gene pools which ↑ risk of inbreeding
-Harmful recessive genes may be common in pop. but can only be ‘expressed’ in offspring if both parents carried gene & passed it on to offspring; most are rare so it’s unusual for both parents to carry unless closely related
-But in captive breeding programmes it’s often impossible to use individuals not closely related
-Eg Hawaiian goose became very rare due to hunting, habitat loss & introduced predators. Captive breeding programme has ↑ wild pop. but captive pop. started w/ just 7 individuals. Inbreeding made some goslings w/ thin, hair-like feathers; insulate poorly so survival can be low in cold temp
-‘Stud book’ can be used to keep records of family trees which helps to ensure breeding occurs in individuals as unrelated as possible. It’s usually used by zoo specialising in keeping that specific species
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what is hybridisation and why has it meant that many species in captivity haven’t been able to breed successfully?
-Species in wild includes individuals that naturally interbreed to make fertile offspring
-In captivity, individuals may inter-breed (hybridise) w/ closely related species/varieties that woudn’t have naturally met in wild; can be prevented if they can be kept apart but it’s an issue w/ plants where pollen can be carried betw plants by insects/wind
-Managers of early zoos didn’t get need to keep sub-species apart. Offspring made, by breeding betw populations that wouldn’t have naturally inter-bred, will have combo of characteristics not found from natural breeding; individuals probably have no conservation value
-If hybridisation occurs, offspring will be diff from wild pop. & may not be as well adapted for survival
-Lion species has 2 distinct sub-species; African Lion & Asiatic Lion
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what is cryopreservation and why does it increase breeding success?
-Storage of eggs, semen & embryos by freezing for future use in breeding programmes
-Can be transported long distances much more easily than moving parent animals
-Allows production of offspring w/out parents having to meet. Can also be stored for use in future, even many years after donor individual has died
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what is artificial insemination (AI) and why can it increase breeding success?
-Involves collection of semen from male & its insertion into a female to make offspring
-Semen can be stored for years so male could father offspring long after he died
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; which issues occurring in breeding programmes involving natural mating does artificial insemination (AI) avoid?
-Animals may not like in same zoo & one would need to be transported; expensive & may be dangerous for animals
-Mating can be dangerous, causing injury/death, esp for larger animals like elephants & rhinos
-Potential partners may not accept each other. In the wild, males & females have space to avoid each other if they wish. Putting potential mates together can be dangerous
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why is embryo transfer used and how can it increase breeding success?
-Some mammal captive breeding populations have very few breeding females; slows rate at which offspring can be produced as duration of pregnancy can be long
-For some species, there may be a closely related species w/ larger number of females in captivity which can be used as surrogate mothers
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what are the main stages in embryo transfer?
-Female of endangered species, eg Bongo antelopes, is treated w/ hormones so she ovulates & releases large number of eggs
-Eggs are washed out of uterus & fertilised w/ sperm from male Bongo
-Each embryo is implanted into female of more common species, eg Common Eland antelopes. Pregnant Elands give birth to Bongo calves
-Female Bongo can produce many eggs on each ovulation & could do so during each oestrus cycle (every 3 weeks) rather than producing 1 calf per year
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what is micro-propagation of plants and how does it increase breeding success?
-Form of tissue culture where many clusters of cells can be made from a single plant/tissue sample
-Each cell cluster can be cultivated to produce individual plant
-In this way, many plants can be produced from single parent plant; all are genetically identical
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what does cloning involve and has it had any success in increasing breeding success in animals?
-Involves production of embryos by transferring nucleus from stem cell of endangered species into an empty egg cell of a closely related species
-Egg is implanted → female of closely-related species, eventually producing a baby animal of endangered species
-Has been used w/ limited success in livestock breeding but not yet w/ wild animal species; success rate v low so far. It’s possible deep frozen stem cells could be used to produce clones in if living population has died out
-Experiments are continuing & one day it may be possible to produce young from species that don’t currently breed, eg Northern White Rhinoceros
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why is cloning important in plants and what is an example of this?
-Important in some plant breeding programmes where cuttings of a mature plant can be cultivated to create many genetically identical plants
-Indigenous subspecies of Atlantic Black Poplar in UK is rare. Its future survival is threatened as their flowers can be pollinated by pollen of other introduced subspecies, making hybrid plants
-To maintain pure gene pool of the population, cloning is used to create many young plants that are genetically identical to non-hybrid parent plants
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what must successful release programmes provide?
-Large enough suitable habitat
-Reliable food supplies
-Low predation risk
-Suitable breeding sites
-Water
-Support of the local human population
-Official support, eg legal protection of the habitat & species
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what are the two types of for,s of release for individuals bred in captivity?
-Hard release; involves releasing individuals w/ no post-release support. Usually involves species where behaviour is controlled by instinct so individuals don’t need to learn survival skills, eg insects, fish, reptiles
-Soft release; involves post-release support like gradual release into larger areas & provision of food as they learn how to find food for themselves. Often necessamo for release of mammals & birds
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what are the problems faced by individuals bred in captivity?
-Finding & recognising food
-Recognising poisonous food
-Developing hunting skills; parents likely also bred in captivity so couldn’t teach their young & unlikely to learn in captivity w/ live prey
-Recognising & avoiding predators
-Being accepted into social groups of the wild populations
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what are seed banks and why are they used?
-Set up to store seeds of wild plants so species wouldn’t become globally extinct if became extinct in the wild
-If a species becomes rare in the wild, seeds stored in seed bank should maintain the biodiversity of species
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; why are species selected for storage in a seed bank?
-Because they’re already threatened in the wild
-Because they’re of particular importance to humans, eg wild relatives of commercial crops
Methods of conserving biodiversity 2: Captive breeding & release programmes; what is the Millennium Seed Bank at Wakehurst Place in Sussex and how does it work?
-Major centre for the conservation of plant genetic diversity
-Seeds are collected from all over the world & stored under dry/refrigerated conditions
-Target number of seeds for each species is 10,000 to try to ensure diverse gene pool
To reduce risks of major accident, seeds are stored underground in a reinforced vault
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are the 3 general approaches to habitat conservation?
-Land ownership
-Designated protected areas
-Habitat creation & management
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; why does land ownership help habitat conservation?
-Many wildlife conservation organisations purchase areas to protect species that already live there/will do so once conditions have been changed so they’re suitable, eg RSPB, National Trust, Woodland Trust
-Individual landowners may also make management decisions for benefit of wildlife
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are designated protected areas and why are they created?
-Designating a protected area establishes legal status of protection
-Owners of the habitat that needs protection may not wish to manage their land for benefit of wildlife in same way that statutory authorities do
-Establishing legally designated protected area should ensure habitat is protected
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- designated protected areas; what are the key features of Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs)?
-Designated by UK legislation
-Protect areas w/ best examples of UK’s flora, fauna, geological/physiographical features
-Management plan is agreed w/ owner, who must inform gov conservation organisation if they wish to carry out an ‘OLD’; ‘Operation Likely to Damage’. -Vary betw sites but often include: ploughing, use of pesticides/fertilisers, drainage, burning, tree planting/removal
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- designated protected areas; what are the key features of National Nature Reserves (NNRs)?
-Designated by UK legislation
-Best examples of SSSIs & usually cover best examples of complete communities of species/habitat types
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- designated protected areas; what are the key features of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs)?
-Designated under EU Habitats Directive
-Each member state in EU must identify habitats within its country that are of international importance, than protect them
-Habitat types vary widely betw diff countries
-Designation may also restrict activities in surrounding areas, eg drainage
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- designated protected areas; what are the key features of Special Protection Areas (SPAs)?
-Designated under EU Birds Directive
-Each member state in EU must identify places within its country that are of international importance for birds, then protect them
-Bird species involved vary widely betw diff countries
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- designated protected areas; what are the key features of Ramsar sites?
-Ramsar convention is an intergovernmental agreement protecting wetlands -Most countries in the world are signatories
-Was originally intended primarily to protect important waterfowl habitats
-Convention has broadened its scope to cover all aspects of wetland conservation & wise use, recognising wetlands as ecosystems that are very important for biodiversity conservation in general & for well-being of human communities
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what do agri-environmental schemes recognise and why?
-Much of GB landscape (and its wildlife habitats) was produced by farming & can only be conserved by continuance of appropriate farming methods
-Increasingly intensive farming methods, esp since 1950s have caused a lot of damage, often removing habitats most important for wildlife, eg hedgerows & hay meadows/by using harmful pesticides. Changes were in response to need for ↑ food output for national food security
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what do agri-environmental schemes provide?
Financial support to farmers to reward & encourage environmentally beneficial developments
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are examples of agri-environmental schemes that have been used?
-Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA)
-Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS)
-Environment Stewardship Scheme (ESS)
-Countryside Stewardship (CS)
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are the aims of most agri-environmental schemes?
-Conserve wildlife (biodiversity)
-Maintain & enhance landscape qualify + character
-Protect historic environment
-Promote public access & understanding
-Protect natural resources
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are the individual features of a farm with an environmentally beneficial management plan granted annual payments?
-Beetle banks; to provide habitats for natural predators & reduce pesticide use
-Hedgerow, store wall & ditch management; to maintain landscape features & wildlife habitats
-Field buffer strips; to protect rivers
-Wild bird seeds; to provide winter bird food
-Low input grasslands; to protect wildflowers
-Protected archaeological sites
-Management to reduce soil erosion; to maintain production & protect rivers
-Protection of in-field trees; as wildlife habitat & landscape feature
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are the extra schemes made by organic farms/farms which receive higher payments?
-Wildlife-rich grass field margins
-Unharvested conservation field headlands for winter bird food
-Restoration of wet grassland for waders & wildfowl
-Water meadow restoration
-Maintenance/restoration of saltmarsh, sand dunes, hedgerows, moorland, traditional orchards, ponds, woodlands
-Public access
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; what are the human activities that have unintentionally created habitats?
Reservoirs, flooded sand & gravel pits, roadside verges, hedgerows, ornamental gardens
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation; why is intentional habitat creation needed and what are examples of this?
-In-situ conservation will only be successful if there’s suitable habitats for species that’ll live there. These may already exist/may be necessary to alter & manage habitat currently unsuitable; requires understanding of abiotic & biotic habitat features that species require
-Habitats that have been created deliberately for wildlife conservation include wetlands, new woodlands, wildflower meadows & artificial coral reefs. Lakenheath & Wallasea Island RSPB reserves were both areas of arable farmland before habitat creation for wildlife began
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- design; what are the requirements for habitat area when designing habitats?
-Must be large enough to support viable populations
-Breeding population mustn’t drop so low that reproduction rate is too low to maintain population & gene pool mustn’t be so small to cause inbreeding
-How large area is depends upon species. In general, species higher up food chains have lower population densities, so larger habitat area may be needed to support viable population. Eg, territory of single tiger can be upto 100 km² so large area is needed to support viable population
-Area too small to support populations of less abundant species, may eventually become unsuitable for other species if absent species provided important inter-species services. Eg, many rainforest monkeys eat fruit from trees. Diff tree species produce fruit at diff times of year, so food will always be available as long as forest area is large enough to have enough trees of sufficient range of species to support monkeys that eat fruit. A smaller area may lack some essential trees so there’d be time periods when there wouldn’t be enough food. If these periods are too long, monkeys may die out
-Some species benefit from small habitats. Frogs, toads & newts breed more successfully in ponds too small to support predatory fish that’d eat their eggs & tadpoles
Methods of conserving biodiversity 3: Habitat conservation- design; why are biological corridors important for habitat design?
-Linking isolated areas of same habitat type allows dispersal of young animals if there’s local breeding surplus & mixing of diff populations + gene pools which reduces risk of inbreeding
-If species dies out in one area, then re-colonisation from other areas is possible
-Can also be used to allow animals to avoid hazards when moving betw habitats
TBC P42
