The impact of war and defeat on Germany: 1939–1949

Question 1

overview of opposition 1933-39

Answer 1

In the years 1933-39 opposition was limited and ineffectual.​

Hitler stepped up the propaganda campaign at the start of the war, knowing that war could bring opposition and have a demoralising effect.​

Opposition grew during the war, particularly when the invasion of the USSR failed.​

But only became serious in July 1944.

Question 2

opposition from young people

1933-49

Answer 2

Many young people joined Swing Youth or Edelweiss Pirates​

Because many of the leaders of the Hitler Youth were called up to fight – lost leadership and direction​

And because the Hitler Youth became even more focused on military activities – put people off​

Mostly involved going to underground ’swing clubs’, or going on weekend hikes hoping to meet and beat up Hitler Youth.​

Some branches of the Edelweiss Pirates got directly involved in resistance to the regime e.g., sheltering those who had escaped from concentration camps, attacking military targets or Nazi officials.​

But their impact was minimal. Did kill the head of the Cologne Gestapo, but the leaders were then arrested and killed.

Question 3

opp. – white rose group

1933-49

Answer 3

White Rose – based in Munich. Led by Hans and Sophie Scholl.​

Printed leaflets encouraging people not to help the war effort, condemning the spiritual and moral values of the regime and attacking the policies towards Jews.​

Caught and executed.​

Brave, but achieved little.

Question 4

opp from the church

1933-49

Answer 4

Dietrich Bonhoeffer – got involved in a plot to assassinate Hitler.​

Oct 1942 was arrested and sent to a concentration camp​

Hanged April 1945​

Church opposition was mainly characterised by individuals taking action, not the whole church as an institution. ​

Protestant and Catholic churches did not publicly condemn the policy towards the Jews.

Question 5

opp from the elites

1933-49

Answer 5

Theses are the same people who had been sympathetic to Hitler’s initial appointment as Chancellor ​

E.g., civil service and army officers ​

Army officers were the most dangerous as they had never been fully assimilated into the Nazi regime​

Military failings in winter 1942-43 and opposition to the massacres taking place in the east led to the development of opposition in the Army

Question 6

opposition

Kreisau Circle

1933-49

Answer 6

To make a plan for a new Germany after Hitler. Drew up ‘Basic Principles for the New Order’. Wanted to form a government that would have been acceptable to the western Allies (but mainly to get rid of a populist dictatorship, not restore true democracy​

Wanted to end the war in the west, but continue the war in the east against the Communists​

Lacked popular support​

It was not certain that the Allies would have abandoned their policy of unconditional surrender even if Hitler had been overthrown

Question 7

July Bomb Plot – Operation Valkyrie

1933-49

Answer 7

General Ludwig Beck, Conservative politician Goerdeler, and Colonel von Stauffenberg.​

Failed to kill Hitler, and failed to move quickly to take Berlin​

The plotters were arrested and executed.​

Hitler used it as an excuse to arrest over 7000 people of whom nearly 5000 were killed.

Question 8

jews in germnay in 1933 and 1939

Answer 8

1933 – 500,000 Jews in Germany​

1939 – 210,000 Jews in Germany

Question 9

situation by 1939 regrading jews

Answer 9

Jews in Germany had lost many significant rights and privileges​

Many Jews in Germany had lost their livelihoods (economic impact of the policy)​

Jews in Germany had been made separate from the rest of the population​

The mentality of Jews being different was becoming ingrained in popular thinking​

Many Jews had emigrated voluntarily and as a result of the forced emigration policy in force from 1938 ​

257,000 Jews left Germany between 1933 and 1939 ​

The number of Jews in Germany had reduced from 500,000 to 210,000

Question 10

The impact of the occupation of lands in the East

Answer 10

​

3 million Jews in Poland​

Resettlement of Jews was made more difficult by the war – put extra strain on food supplies and transportation​

Creation of ghettoes​

Madagascar (French colony) and Siberia plans – impossible because these were not areas controlled by Germany ​

Escalation of the policy​

Actions of the SS Einsatzgruppen in the invasion of Russia – murdered 700,000 Jews in western Russia (Ukraine especially)​

But still did not seem to be an adequate ‘solution’

Question 11

what happened in 1940

jews

Answer 11

First deportation of Jews from some German provinces​

Question 12

what happened in june 1941

jews

Answer 12

Action squads (Einsatzgruppen) of SS join invasion of USSR to round up and kill Jews

Question 13

what happened in september 1941

jews

Answer 13

All Jews forced to wear the yellow Star of David

Question 14

what happened 20th january 1942

jews

Answer 14

Wannsee Conference

Question 15

what happened in spring 1942

jews

Answer 15

Extermination facilities created at Auschwitz, Sobibor and Treblinka​

Question 16

what happened in Feb 1943

jews

Answer 16

destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto

Question 17

what happened 1943-44

jews

Answer 17

Transportation of Jews from all over German-occupied Europe to the death camps

Question 18

what happened 27th January 1945

jews

Answer 18

Liberation of Auschwitz by Soviet troops​

Question 19

Implementation of the ‘Final Solution’

Answer 19

Experiments using gas during Autumn 1941 (Zyklon B)​

In vans​

Then at Chelmno​

Jan 1942 – the Wannsee Conference agreed the policy of the mass extermination of Jews

Question 20

why was the plan for the final solution adopted

Answer 20

Either:
A response to the war – the difficulties of housing and feeding Jews while trying to win the war – not being won as quickly as hoped and expected – need not to divert resources​

OR a long-term plan to which Hitler had been committed from early in his career (and which Germans actively or passively subscribed to).

Question 21

causes of the holocaust

listed

Answer 21

1. war
2. hitler
3. the german people
4. the nature of the nazi

Question 22

Hitler

causes of the holocaust

Answer 22

Anti-semitic attitudes, writings and speeches

Occupation -> more Jews​

The failure to win quickly​

Failure of resettlement plans​

War brutalised people -> acceptance of killing​

War intensified paranoia about the enemy within & encouraged nationalism & extremism​

War removed concern about international opinion

Question 23

war

causes of the holocaust

Answer 23

pressure of soldiers on the Eastern Front – just carrying out orders / peer pressure, alcohol, cowardice…..

Question 24

the nature of the nazi state

causes of the holocaust

Answer 24

Chaos in govt; working towards the Fuhrer -> radicalisation

Totalitarian state – impact of propaganda, repression, emphasis on blind obedience

Question 25

the german people

causes of the holocaust

Answer 25

1. ‘Hitler’s Willing Executioners’ (Goldhagen) – active acquiescence with & participation in anti-semitic views & policies.​

Or​

2. Acceptance – through conformity & apathy & effectiveness of the propaganda​

Inability to prevent it​

Unawareness of it

Question 26

liberation at end of ww2

Answer 26

By the Red Army pushing back.​

July 1944 – Soviet troops liberated Majdanek​

Oct 1944 – the last use of gas chambers at Auschwitz​

Nov 1944 – death marches – the Nazis forced 25,000 Jews to walk over 100 miles in rain and snow from Budapest to the Austrian border. ​

Himmler ordered the destruction of the crematoria at Auschwitz.​

Early 1945 – more death marches as allies advanced​

27th Jan 1945 – Soviet troops liberated Auschwitz (Holocaust Memorial Day)

Question 27

brief overview of WW2

Answer 27

1936 remilitarisation of the Rhineland​

March 1938 Anschluss with Austria​

Sept 1938 Chamberlain “Peace in our time” - Munich​

Sept 1938 Sudetenland​

March 1939 invasion of Czechslovakia​

August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact​

1st September invasion of Poland​

3rd September UK & France declare war

Question 28

germany’s success in the first years of WW2

Answer 28

Won support at home

June 1941 – Operation Barbarossa – the invasion of the USSR

Question 29

turning point in WW2

Answer 29

Turning Point 1942/43​

German advance was halted at the Battle of Stalingrad​

Germans had over-reached​

Losses in north Africa​

Allied bombing campaign began - > Germany itself was affected

Question 30

probs facing germany in 1945

Answer 30

Most of the effects of WW2 were felt by civilians. ​

Soldiers were only really involved at the beginning and end of the war​

7.5 million foreign forced labour in Germany by the end of the war (21% of the workforce)​

Germany in ruins. Berlin had 40,000 tons of shells dropped on it.​

Humiliation of defeat.​

Homelessness (from the bombing campaign)​

Refugees​

Economic ruin of the state​

Social problems: High number of deaths (7 million); effects of wounds, loss, psychological damage, missing, bereaved; fear and anxiety, trying to adjust to peace. Trauma of women in the East (1 in 3 raped by Soviet soldiers)​

Damage to cultural heritage

Question 31

refugees in 1945

Answer 31

30 million people displaced by WW2 in Europe​

At the end of the war they tried to return home – resettled Germans fleeing the advancing Russians, forced labourers returning to Eastern Europe and concentration camp victims trying to find relatives and retrieve their belongings​

$10 billion was spent on repatriating the refugees and displaced persons between 1945 and 1947​

Priority went to citizens of states of the Allies, then Italians and Germans and its collaborators

Question 32

conditions in germany 1945

Answer 32

20% of housing had been destroyed​

Another 30% badly damaged​

Berlin, Hamburg and Dresden were significantly worse -> housing crisis​

Food and fuel shortages

Question 33

economy in 1945

Answer 33

Infrastructure had broken down​

Massive state debt​

Rising inflation -> growth in wartime black market​

​

BUT​

Civil service still existed​

Well-established banking system remained​

Germany’s established industrial base could recover

Question 34

gov in 1945

Answer 34

The German government had collapsed with the death of Hitler. Admiral Dönitz signed the unconditional surrender on 8th May 1945.​

The German state had ceased to exist. ​

The Allies took over control of Germany.

Question 35

questions facing the allies at end of WW2

[not entirely significant , yet helpful for essays]

Answer 35

How should Germany’s political system be rebuilt?​

How should the Nazis and the threat of Nazism be dealt with?​

How should militarism be contained?​

How should the German economy be rebuilt?​

​

What do you think the Allies aims might have been?

Question 36

origins of a divided germany

Answer 36

The initial aim had not been division.​

However the challenges faced by the Allied occupation and the wider international context of the Cold War caused Germany to be divided.​

Germany was divided into zones, with each of the main allies taking responsibility for the administration of the areas they had liberated. ​

These zones were largely determined by where the allies had reached by the end of the war. ​

In these zones, the allies took responsibility for law and order, food, housing and the economy​

But divisions grew over how these zones were administered and eventually they became so great as to prevent the merging of the zones back into a united Germany.​

Question 37

debate about the division of germany

Answer 37

Traditional western view – USSR was to blame (due to their actions and aims)​

​

Newer view – unity would be difficult to maintain once the common enemy was defeated due to the ideological differences between the allies. The western allies should have been more understanding of Russia’s needs and interests.

Question 38

tensiosn between the allies

Answer 38

The Grand Alliance was already under strain before the end of the war ​

Stalin had been pressing for the opening of a second front in western Europe since 1942 and was becoming increasingly impatient as the war dragged on.​

The defeat of the common enemy, Germany, removed the only thing the allies had in common​

The capitalist and democratic West despised the communist and authoritarian Soviet Union ​

The Soviet Union had been an outcast nation since the October Revolution in 1917. And the Russians had responded by isolating themselves, promoting Communist activities in other countries and pursuing a hostile foreign policy.

Question 39

stalins view of the war

Answer 39

Joined the ‘Grand Alliance’ first with Britain then the US after the German invasion of the USSR, June 1941​

The USSR then bore the brunt of the war against Fascism from June 1941 to June 1944 losing 27 million people ​

Stalin requested a second front to be opened up by the US and Britain in 1942 and 1943…..​

In an effort to appease Stalin and keep him in the war Churchill had promised land to the USSR (in a meeting at Tehran 1943) in which the borders of Poland would be moved​

And Churchill and Stalin agreed on some ‘spheres of influences’ in post-war Europe (in a meeting in Moscow 1944) – the Percentages Agreement

Question 40

The USSR’s aims with germnay

Answer 40

Fear of Germany – had been invaded twice by Germany through Poland – so wanted a weak Germany and a series of buffer states between it and Germany​

Reparations = financial revenge

Question 41

The west’s aims with germnay

Answer 41

Viewed the occupation of eastern Europe as communist expansionism, and the next stage of the ‘world revolution’​

Wanted German recovery – wanted a trading partner and did not want a breeding ground for communism

Question 42

when was potsdam

Answer 42

july 1945

Question 43

bad atmosphere at potsdam

Answer 43

Had agreed at Yalta that once Hitler had been defeated, Germany and Berlin would be divided into four zones.​

But by the time they met at Potsdam, the Red Army was already established in Eastern Europe, which gave the Soviets a strong negotiating position.​

Just as the Potsdam Conference began, the Americans tested the atom bomb (why had they not shared this information with their ally? Who was it really designed to intimidate?)​

Roosevelt had died in April. Truman was less experienced in foreign affairs.​

Right at the start of the conference there was a General Election in Britain. And Churchill lost! Had to go home and was replaced by Attlee.​

After Yalta the USSR was supposed to be supervising free and fair elections in Poland…. That had not happened…..

Question 44

how did the decisions at potsdam influence a divided germnay

Answer 44

Joint Allied Control under the Allied Control Council (ACC).​

zones of occupation

The reality was that when a unanimous decision could not be reached, each military governor implemented their own decision.​

​
**
4 Ds​

Demilitarisation​

Denazification​

Decentralisation​

Democratisation​**

​

But there were divergent approaches​

Question 45

demilitarisation

potsdam influence

Answer 45

When Germany had surrendered, its army had been disbanded.​

Now there was no German government it would not be possible for it to have an independent military force.​

Occupation armies stationed there.

Question 46

denazification

potsdam influence

Answer 46

Nuremberg Trials​

November 1945 to October 1946​

Some had already committed suicide​

Some not found​

22 brought to trial​

11 sentenced to death​

​

But then diverged in their approach

Question 47

the western zones on denazification

potsdam influence

Answer 47

5000 brought to trial after this​

BUT what about the 8 million who had joined the Nazi Party????​

Were let off with a questionnaire ​

Why? Impractical to bring to trial / dismiss all teachers, civil servants, administrators etc

Question 48

the soviet zones on denazification

potsdam influence

Answer 48

Thousands interred in concentration camps (e.g.,Sachsenhausen)​

Thousands dismissed​

Why? It was an ideological question. The stamping out of Fascism and all Right-Wing thinking, of which Nazism was merely the worst form.​

And their economic policy completed this​

Question 49

the soviet zones on democratisation

potsdam influence

Answer 49

The Communists, led by Walter Ulbricht, arrived back in Berlin in April 1945​

June – SMAD issued Order No 2, which allowed the formation of political parties (KPD, SPD plus various liberal parties, CDU, a Peasant Party, and a more RW party)​

1946 the KPD and SPD were forcibly merged into the SED. ​

By 1948 the SED took control of all the parties in an ‘anti-Fascist bloc’ – the National Front for Democratic Germany

Question 50

the western zones on democratisation

potsdam influence

Answer 50

Re-emergence of political parties – from the ground up (including KPD, SPD, FDP, CDU/CSU, SRP. NPD, DP, BHE….)​

Elections were held – starting at a local level​

Slow steps towards rebuilding democracy​

Question 51

How did democratisation work out in the soviet zone?

potsdam influence

Answer 51

The SED increasingly established itself and got the anti-Fascist bloc to agree that state control and economic intervention was essential.​

Took control of education and key government appointments​

Free expression was severely limited and political dissent restrained​

By 1948/49 democracy was formally abandoned and the SED announced itself as a Marxist-Leninist party, and established mass communist organisations for the youth, women and unions in the Soviet zone. ​

Question 52

what were the 4 d’S

potsdam influence

Answer 52

Demilitarisation​

Denazification​

Decentralisation​

Democratisation​

Question 53

economic views in the western zones

Answer 53

US and British were keen to rebuild Germany; France was not.

Question 54

economic views in the soviet zones

Answer 54

​

In Communist thinking, Nazism was merely the worst form of capitalism, and therefore capitalism must be abolished.​

Break-up of large agricultural estates​

The takeover of banks and factories​

Factories dismantled and taken to the USSR as reparations​

The Soviet zone had fewer industrial resources and so they would receive an extra 25% of reparations from the British and American zones. ​

Keen to strip their zone of assets and willing to have a weak Germany

Question 55

How did the divisions over economic policy work out? [western zones]

Answer 55

The Hunger Winter 1946/47 (food shortages in Germany)​

Britain had to introduce rationing at home in order to fund its zone​

Britain also could not keep up with payments of the reparations to the Soviets​

So Britain and America merged their zones to form Bizonia in January 1947​

France joined in 1948 to form Trizonia (the reality was a western economic system…..)

Question 56

truman doctorine and marshall aid [western zones]

Answer 56

​

The West saw the establishment of a communist political and economic system in the Soviet zone as evidence of Stalin’s desire for world revolution. ​

The USA saw opportunities to gain from a greater involvement in European affairs.​

Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech, March 1946

Truman made a speech in March 1947 which laid the foundations for The Truman Doctrine​

It pledged that the US would protect democratic governments against Communist influence – a policy of Communist containment​

Concern about economic problems in European countries and how this might provide a breeding ground for Communism, especially as Communist parties were popular in France, Italy and Greece (Greek Civil War)​

This led to the Marshall Plan - $13 billion American aid to Europe (European Recovery Programme)​

Aid was also offered to the Soviet Union and countries under its influence but it was rejected as ‘dollar diplomacy’ because of all the conditions attached.

Question 57

what happened to the militray mark

Answer 57

Had become devalued because the Soviet zone had printed so much​

A drop in food and industrial production made it worse​

Danger of inflation at 1923 levels​

Black market grew

Question 58

when was the militray mark introduced

Answer 58

1945

Question 59

the western zones on currency reform

Answer 59

Introduced the Deutsche mark (June 1948) without consulting or seeking agreement from the Russians​

It was a great success - industrial production grew, raised morale, a strong well-established economy in the three western zones

Question 60

the soviet zones on currency reform

Answer 60

Refused to introduce the new currency in their zone – believed it was designed to undermine their zone.​

Within days, the Soviets, brought in their own currency, the East German mark.​

AND sought to cut off West Berlin from the rest of Germany

Question 61

when was the berlin blockade

Answer 61

June 1948 - May 1949

Question 62

what was the berlin blockade

Answer 62

June 1948 – May 1949 (321 days)​

Stalin blocked the road and rail access to West Berlin​

Aim: to starve West Berlin and force its merger into the Soviet zone ​

Provoked by what the Soviet Union saw as the aggressive policies of the USA, especially on Marshall Aid​

​

Question 63

western europe response to the berlin blockade

Answer 63

The western allies were determined to resist the spread of Communism – even if it resulted in the division of Germany​

Vital to prevent the absorption of West Berlin into the Eastern sector because of the city’s position inside the Soviet zone ​

For the West it was useful to have an outpost in the communist sea ​

The first direct clash between west and east, so it was a test of nerves​

The west feared, and the Soviet Union hoped, that if it took control of the whole of Berlin it would be the start of a Soviet takeover of the whole of Germany​

So the Western allies organised an airlift of food and fuel to the city​

One plane took off every 4 minutes. At its peak – one per minute!!!​

The only way the airlift could be stopped was for the Soviet Union to shoot down the planes and risk World War Three, which it was not prepared to do ​

In the end, Stalin backed down.

Question 64

significance of the berlin blockade

Answer 64

Stalin realised that the resolve of the West was much greater than he had expected​

Support for the West Berliners had done much to raise morale there​

It had increased integration between Germans in the western zones and the Western Powers – no longer the enemy​

It sealed the division of Germany

Question 65

the division of germnay

finality

Answer 65

The West were discussing not whether but when a division should occur​

Began working on a new constitution for a democratically elected government of a new West German state, the Federal Republic of Germany​

The constitution was adopted in May 1949 and in August the elections took place​

October 1949 – the Soviet zone became the GDR

Question 66

when did the soviet zone become the GDR

Answer 66

oct 1949

Question 67

when was teh war economy

Answer 67

1939-42

Question 68

what was the war economy

Answer 68

Decrees for war production
By 1941 55% of the workforce worked on war-related projects
Low production of consumer goods

‘Rationalisation Decree’ Dec 1941 – to reform the economy and eliminate waste (committees responsible for particular types of weapon or equipment)

Question 69

when was the rationalisation decree

Answer 69

dec 1941

Question 70

what was the rationalisation decree

Answer 70

to reform the economy and eliminate waste (committees responsible for particular types of weapon or equipment)

Question 71

aim of war economy policy

Answer 71

Desperate need for tanks and ammunition

Question 72

evidence war economy was a success

Answer 72

Small increases in production of planes and tanks.

Question 73

evidence war economy was a failure

Answer 73

Armaments production remained low

Planes did increase from 8000, but only to 10,500 in June 1941

Low increase in tank production too.
Inefficiency and poor coordination, partly due to the war beginning too early, and partly due to the polycratic nature of the state

Not ready for the invasion of the USSR.

Labour shortage: 24.5m in 1939 down to 20 m by 1940 (away fighting)

Used foreign workers from occupied Europe, but had to be heavily policed.

By September 1939 women made up over 37% of the workforce

Percentage of GDP spent on the military was much higher than Britain in 1937 and 1938, but much lower in 1939, 1940 and 1941.

Question 74

what was rationing

Answer 74

In 1939 some food, and all clothes were rationed (until 1943 when there was no clothes manufacturing at all!!!)
Soap, toilet paper, hot water, sweets were also rationed
Very limited amount of meat and dairy

Question 75

evidence of success for rationing

Answer 75

Shared out the resources and freed up resources for the military. The German population did not feel the worst effects until 1944.

Question 76

evidence of failure for rationing

Answer 76

As defeat became more likely, government became more chaotic. Ration cards were no longer honoured. People had to rely on the black market.

Question 77

what was total war economy

Answer 77

February 1942 Albert Speer was appointed Minister of Armaments.

Central Planning Board April 1942 with a range of committees.

Use of concentration camp prisoners as workers

Employing women in armaments factories

Ending conscription of skilled workers into the armed forces

Eliminating the production of everything that did not contribute to the war (e.g., clothes, professional sports, magazines…)

February 1943 – Goebbels called for total war (due to surrender at Stalingrad)

Question 78

aim of total war economy

Answer 78

To sustain a war on multiple fronts

Total commitment of all human and material resources in the nation to waging war

Question 79

evidence of success of total war economy

Answer 79

First 6 months in office tank production rose by 25%, ammunition by 97%.
Total arms production by 59%

By August 1944 a threefold increase in war materials when compared with 1942.

Question 80

evidence of failure of total war economy

Answer 80

But could have produced more:
Gauleiters at local level prevented Speer’s orders from being carried out.
SS exploited conquered land for their own gain rather than the benefit of the war economy.
Conquered territories were plundered rather than exploited
impact of Allied bombing prevented further arms production

Failure at Stalingrad – faced with fierce Soviet resistance, a lack of supplies and bitter winter conditions 1942/43. (this also marked the failure of German attempts to win the Caucasus oil fields)
Failure in North Africa

Question 81

aims of allied bombing campaigns

Answer 81

• Destroy industrial targets
• Bring down morale
• Revenge for bombing of the UK

Question 82

impact of allied bombing on the economy

Answer 82

• Air raids on German industrial targets began in 1940 (alongside the British policy of naval blockade). The immediate and dramatic effect of an air raid was good for morale at home in Britain.
• By 1942 – bombing raids more frequent and intense
• Germans were driven to leave the cities and move to rural areas which reduced available workforce
  1. Hamburg, 1943 – caused a firestorm – killed 30,000 people
  2. Dresden, February 1945 – killed 150,000 people and destroyed 70% of property **
  3. Total civilian deaths – **600,000 **

Question 83

DEBATE about impact of allied bombing

Answer 83

1. Some argue it had little impact on German economic production levels
2. Other argue prevented levels from rising further; there was industrial destruction, communications were disrupted. More effort had to be spent relocating sites underground instead of increasing production. There bombing was very significant in preventing the Nazis from achieving total war production

Question 84

The impact of allied bombing on morale on the home front

Answer 84

• Nazi propaganda continued to be important in **maintaining morale. **
• BUT the problem was that the propaganda assured them that the superior German race would win the war which made it harder to understand all the bomb damage and led people to question whether Germany was really winning
• So, the regime did acknowledge setbacks in the fighting, and these were used to rally the people and encourage them to greater efforts.
• **Little evidence of a collapse in morale **(like Britain’s ‘blitz spirit’)
• In fact, the shared suffering brought the Nazi Party and people together and made them defiant against the enemy
• Goebbels gained popularity by visiting bombed areas (Hitler stayed away)
  As late as May 1945, most people were still willing to keep fighting to the bitter end
• fear of what would happen to them as the Soviet troops advanced.
  1. Would they be the victims of revenge
  2. fear of the consequences of the racial policies towards the Jews – retribution
  3. still shared Hitler’s vision of the future – the Thousand Year Reich
• The last phase of the war saw a rise of violence – local Nazi officials killing many Germans who showed signs of wanting to surrender.** Roving squads of SS executed suspected deserters. Death marches of concentration camp survivors. **
• BUT also signs that at the very end, **most became concerned with their own personal survival rather than fighting. ** Breakdown of government; no support for refugees and evacuees; and breakdown of the Hitler myth of invincibility.