Divided Germany: The Federal Republic and the DDR 1949–1963 Flashcards
what is the FRG
the federal republic of germnay
overview of adenauer
A towering figure who dominated his party and led public opinion
He has been criticised for being authoritarian and for the choices he made BUT he did preside over an era of STABILITY
He was voted the greatest German of all time in 2003 (Adenauer, Martin Luther, Karl Marx)
Became Chancellor in 1949 at the age of 73 and stayed in power until he was 87
He was born just after the unification of Germany. Lived through WWI, the creation of Weimar, the rise of Hitler, and WWI. Maybe politics and manner shaped in WWI period his rather authoritarian approach to politics.
what was adenauer’s reign as chancellor
1949-1963
[14yrs]
situation facing adenuaer in 1949
Defeat, occupation, economic crisis, post-war problems - all much worse than 1918 defeat.
Economic situation beginning to improve – Marshall Aid, currency reform 1948, Trizonia.
The need for joint economic administration of the western allies zones required coordinated political leadership
Political chaos since 1918. Uncertainty about the new political situation. The last experience of democracy was Weimar which had resulted in revolutionary unrest, inflation, political instability, economic depression and ultimately descent into dictatorship. Most Germans were not committed democrats.
Twelve years of Nazi propaganda and brutal practice had made a serious impact on Germans.
Germany’s international standing was of an outcast nation – feared and hated (especially by the French)
In fact the Cold War helped West Germany as the threat became the Communists and West Germany was needed in the fight against them. This speeded up the rehabilitation of Germany, especially the Berlin Blockade
4 probs of weimars constition
- The President and Chancellor had emergency powers
- The chancellor could be dismissed and replaced by the President
- Proportional representation allowed extremist parties a foothold
- Proportional representation resulted in weak coalition governments
Adenauers foreign policy priorities
Adenauer faced a difficult choice as to what Germany’s post war priorities should be: German unification or European reintegration
Adenauer chose European reintegration. He abandoned the East and faced the West, whereas the SPD would have chosen German unification
He followed the policy of ‘small steps’, ‘no experiments’. Simple, straightforward policies to reassure Europe
what was west germnay’s constitution
Drawn up by Germans but guided by the Allies
Constantly aware of the danger of dictatorship and the failings of the Weimar Republic
The aim was DECENTRALISATION & DEMOCRATISATION
Designed to be temporary or “provisional”, pending a proper constitution for a united Germany once a peace treaty had been signed
Constitution required the FRG to work towards reunification (Adenauer chose not to pursue this first)
Constitution gave all people of German descent the right to German citizenship (many took up this offer and escaped to the West – over 3 million before 1961).
political stability under Adenauer
Adenauer remained as chancellor from 1949 to 1963. Won four general elections
Three main parties – not lots of small parties. Coalitions of only two parties, and once (1957) the CDU won outright, which made it the only single party majority government since the First World War
Stability facilitated the development of an affluent society
Better relations with the West helped to maintain political stability
By 1959 there were signs of declining support for Adenauer due to some errors of judgement but even so Adenauer was more successful than any German politician since Bismarck
election resukts in 1949 and 1961
CDU and SPD
1949- [CDU= 31%, SPD= 29.2]
1961- [CDU= 45.3%, SPD= 36.2%]
summary of election results
1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1966
1949 – Winning parties 31% of vote. If the CDU and Adenauer had not formed a government here, the whole future of the FRG might have been different. Weeks of discussions about coalitions. Coalition included FDP and DP.
1953 – Winning parties 45% of vote. This was a reflection of Adenauer’s successes. CDU could have governed alone but chose to run a coalition government, even including Theodor Oberlander – a Nazi who implemented policies in E Europe.
**1957 – CDU 50.2% **of vote. Adenauer’s great economic success, FP successes and personal popularity and trustworthiness
1961 – CDU 45.3% of vote. Fall in the vote due to Adenauer’s great age (85). Decline in abilities and popularity. A new era on the way. Only two major parties left and FDP clinging on
In 1966 –** CDU and SPD grand coalition**. Chancellor CDU until 1969.
popularity of CDU + vanishing of opposition
Electoral system - 5% hurdle brought in in 1953; Additional Member System - combination of FPTP and PR
*Nature of the parties / vanishing opposition / shift to the middle ground *
- SRP & KPD outlawed – 1952 & 1956
- 1957 number of constituencies that had to be won outright if the 5% condition was not met was raised from 1 to 3. CSU became an extension of CDU. Other small parties eliminated.
- Adenauer’s policy of inclusiveness many right wing parties absorbed within CDU. Never became a Volkspartei, but did encourage a range of profiles among its supporters.
Adenauer’s policies – economic miracle and foreign policy.
difference of FRG compared to weimar political system
FRG political parties depended on permanent membership and organisational machinery with full-time officials.
Trend towards professionalization of politics
Three-party system emerged (75-90% of the electorate represented by 3 parties)
Political culture centrist. Majority of the electorate were in the centre ground
Erosion of traditional political pressure groups (working class, Catholics, nationalist Protestants)
Secularisation
challanges facing social stability
*Highly complex society: *
Ex-Nazis – not supporters of democracy
Millions of refugees who had lost their homes in the east (now Poland) - many who were not supporters of democracy.
A lack of a democratic tradition in Germany made Adenauer’s task more difficult.
Many had lost property during the war.
One-quarter was fatherless
Large numbers of refugees from the Soviet zone of Germany – a source of cheap labour, but sometimes put others out of work -> resentment
how did Adenauer manage germnays past
successfullness + what he did
Very successful
Government compensated those who had suffered
1951 Adenauer made a speech (Compensation to Jews), accepting responsibility by paying compensation, but not accepting guilt. Agreed to pay a large sum (£3.45 billion) to Israel in compensation.
Controversial – what about individuals / those not in Israel. But how could you possibly compensate anyone for the Holocaust?
The government exonerated most Nazis from their crimes by acknowledging that crimes had been committed collectively and not by individuals
Former Nazi civil servants regained their jobs (->40-80% of civil servants were ex-Nazis). Nazis continued to work in the judiciary and universities
And former Nazis were not excluded from claiming pensions for service to the Nazi state
New Gemeinschaft course in 1950 -> revised German History and required to teach democratic values
Some degree of questionable morality, but it did create an atmosphere where people did not fear retribution and helped to create social stability. Prudent silence rather than a provocative public recital of the truth
Schumacher, however, was not happy about this and spoke movingly about the sufferings of the Jews.
economic miracle stats
Economic miracle helped to create an affluent society
Certainly was not an ‘equal’ society, but most people were better off not worse off -> stability and support for the government in elections
Improvement in housing – 430,000 homes built by 1952 and 4 million by 1957
1949-63 wages rose 400%
Ready supply of consumer goods
Travel was widely available for those with surplus income.
how did adenauer improve social welfare
Pensions
Insurance-based healthcare
This nullified the Communist threat
Emergence of a petty bourgeoisie – symbolised the prosperity of the new state with his cigar, car, new home in a rebuilt city.
But meant that the old elites continued to dominate society and by 1960s there was growing resentment at their preponderance, especially from the younger generation born after the war
overall social stability achievements
Social stability had been achieved but at the cost of not dealing with under-lying tensions
By 1960s economic growth was starting to level off and new challenges emerged, especially from the young
Society became polarised - student movements were angry about their country’s Nazi past which was stoked by high profile trials like Eichmann’s
who was Erhad and what was his policy
Economic adviser in Bizonia
Minister of Economic Affairs in the FRG 1949-63
Chancellor 1963-66
Presided over the economic miracle - by his policies
‘Prosperity for All’ 1957
what was the economic miracle
A boom that lasted from 1952 until 1966
Annual growth rate averaged 8% (1951-65) (12% in 1955)
GDP almost doubled between 1950 and 1955. By 1960 had risen by nearly another 50%
Balance of trade was positive as the amount of exports grew. By 1954 the FRG was the third largest trading power after the USA and Britain
Employment rose. Unemployment was just 1 m (4.2%) in 1955. By the late 1950s there was full employment (despite large numbers of foreign workers and people arriving from the GDR)
Growth in wages. Incomes rose c. 400% between 1949 and 1963.
what were the aims of foreign policy
and which did adenuer prioritse
Relations with the West – integration with the West - highly successful
Relations with the USSR – abandoning the East. And USSR was never reconciled to German rearmament. Adenauer was criticised for this, but it was the only way of achieving the first aim
RELATIONS WITH THE WEST!!!!!!!
What can be considered Adenauers greatest achievement
reunifiation wit the west
adenauer’s relationship with the west
1945 Germany was viewed as a threat to be contained
Berlin Blockade had done a lot to change attitudes, but so too did Stalin’s actions in the East/Czechoslovakia
1951 – the western powers declared that the state of war with Germany was at an end but there was no formal peace treaty because there was no all-Germany government
Adenauer made West Germany indispensable to the West and joined every possible organisation.
He somehow got the West to trust Germany again, and to help rebuild the economy
The greatest achievement of all was to get France to support this
Could only do this by abandoning the East, making it clear that there was not going to be a large united and economically strong Germany, only an economically strong West Germany that was fully committed to democratic ideals and integration with western partners
West Germany was reintegrated and became an equal and vital partner with other western powers
Adenauer and the USSR
FRG’s improvement in relations with the West was a major concern to Stalin and the USSR.
It marked the strengthening of USSR’s Cold War opponents
1952 Stalin sent notes to the West suggesting he would give up control of East Germany in return for a united, neutral Germany. But remained insistent that once united, Germany could not join the West because of his security concerns. The Western Allies rejected the offer (a relief to Adenauer).
East German risings of 1953. Adenauer chose to ignore this. Left fellow Germans to their fate.
He also refused to recognise the GDR as a separate state – called it ‘the Zone’ - and refused to have any diplomatic relations with any communist power except the USSR. (The Hallstein Doctrine – not abandoned until 1969). (In 1957 Tito recognised the GDR -> Bonn severed diplomatic relations with Belgrade.
Adenauer did visit Moscow in 1955. He was able to secure the return of POWs still being held - > won much support at home.
Building of the Berlin Wall 1961 – Adenauer made no response. Also controversial.
evaluation of foreign policy
Some controversial aspects to his treatment of the East, BUT he had made a clear choice at the outset and this was what had won him such support with the West
West Germany was treated as an equal by the West and was accepted among the community of nations
This contributed greatly to economic stability and greatly to Adenauer’s electoral success.
decline of Adenauer
election
1959 Presidential election
- Theodor Heuss stood down as required after 10 years
- Adenauer announced his intention to run and then withdrew
- A good attempt to prevent an SPD nominee from winning
- His indecision damaged his reputation
Adenauer and the berlin wall
Adenauer did nothing. He took no action to oppose it.
In contrast with Willy Brandt (SPD mayor of West Berlin) who offered a strong response on behalf of freedom and democracy. (He was leader of the SPD 1964-87; Chancellor in 1969).
Adenauer not only did not oppose it, but appeared to ignore it. Postponed a visit for two days while he carried out other routine engagements.
This was deeply unpopular. When he finally did go to West Berlin he was greeted with jeers.
When President Kennedy visited West Berlin in 1963, Brandt rather than Adenauer was placed at the centre of the visit.
when was the berlin wall built
august 1961
when was the der spiegel crisis
1962
del spiegel crisis
adneuar downfall
Well-known German political magazine published an article that was critical of the readiness of the West German defence forces. The defence minister then misled the Bundestag in response to questions on the issue
The government appeared to try to silence the magazine by raiding its offices and arresting some of the journalists
A public outcry followed – not because of the defence policy, but because it looked as if the government was attacking the freedom of the press, as had happened in Nazi Germany
Adenauer resigned the following year
what did eichmann’s trial suggest about adenuaer
The discovery of Eichmann hidden in Argentina under a false name and with a beard – captured by the Israelis and put on trial in Jerusalem - seemed to suggest that Adenauer had been too quick to forget the Nazi past and look to the future.
Convicted and hanged 1962.
overview evaluation of FRG under adenauer
An ignominious end
Social tensions resurfacing
Questions of collusion with Nazism from the younger generation
Student protests in 1968, and a terrorist group the Baader-Meinhof Gang (Red Army Faction) in late 1960s and 1970s. The student protests were a rejection of traditionalism and German authority and its ties to old Nazism
A corresponding re-emergence of the NPD, a right-wing party
However Germany had become a stable democracy
There was sustained economic growth and rising standards of living
Germany more fully integrated into Western Europe than after WWI
what did the GDR do in 1952 regarding the berlin war
GDR established a system of passes for visits of West Berliners to the East. There were barbed wire fences on the East German border, but Berlin remained open.
what did the GDR do in 1956 regarding the berlin war
1956 restricted virtually all travel, but subway trains etc made it unenforceable.
why was the berlin wall built
Marks the failure of the GDR.
West Berlin – a plughole
1945-61 - 3.5 million had fled to west (mostly young and well educated) -> the pending collapse of the GDR
Khrushchev and Ulbricht – presented an ultimatum to western powers in 1958, demanding that West Berlin should be reintegrated with the east and become an integral part of the GDR within 6 months.
The Allies ignored the ultimatum.
evidence of people from the GDR wanting to live in the FRG
October 7, 1961. Four-year-old Michael Finder of East Germany is tossed by his father into a net held by residents across the border in West Berlin. The father, Willy Finder, then prepares to make the jump himself.
timeline of people escaping to the west
before teh wall, and immediantly after
Summer 1961 – increased numbers of East Germans using the last remaining escape route to the West (collectivisation policy)
Rapid action. Preparations were made in secret
Morning – Sun 13th Aug – Berliners awoke to find that overnight access to the two parts had been closed off.
“Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart”
Immediate escapes – Schumann / windows
response to the building of the berlin wall
Adenauer’s response significant – did nothing
Western powers chose to do nothing
9 crossing points (needed permits). West Germans and other western visitors could in general get a permit, but had to exchange at least 25 DM into Ostmarks 1:1 (terrible exchange rate)
attempst at escaping the east
Escape attempts (3 versions of the wall – 3.6m high)
- 263 deaths? Many injured. Guards had orders to shoot
9 days after the wall was built – the first victim
Woman who jumped from window
Man whose mother lived in the East
Another young man (18) Peter Fechter was shot and left to bleed to death – on western cameras
Digging tunnels – one was 147 metres – over 3 nights in 1964 57 people escaped before it was discovered
Jumping over
Driving vehicles into it / into the barriers (sports car – the driver and passengers ducked down)
Hot air balloons (nylon – family made it over)
Used the sewers
signifnace of berlin wall on division
The “German Question” seemed to have ended
It left both sides continuing to develop in distinctive ways
East
Labour supply stabilised
Actually economic performance improved
Younger generation knew nothing else – people came to terms with this life and a socialist society developed. When the wall came down in 1989 it was a shock that E & W Germans realised how far apart they had grown.
when was the GDR formed
oct 1949
who led the GDR
Ulbricht
gov and politics in the GDR
The GDR was formed in October 1949 from the Soviet Zone
Wrote a constitution – also ‘temporary’ – claiming that it was a provisional state awaiting reunification
Completely different political system from the FRG
‘Democratic centralism’
How much economic change was there in the GDR 1949-63?
became communist
No private property
All amenities and raw materials nationalised
Collective living and attitudes
industry in the GDR
Emphasis on heavy industry - fuel, power, iron, steel, chemicals and building
The party set production levels, handled worker discipline and ran social activities -> increased its control over workers’ lives.
Economic and ideological aims
1945 – many large industries had been nationalised or placed under state ownership = VEBs (People’s Own Factories)
1949 – 76% under the control of the state
So it was easier to implement change than it would be in agriculture
when was teh two year plan
GDR
1949-50
when was the 1st 5yr plan
1951-55
when was the 2nd 5yr plan
GDR
1956-60 [abandoned in 1958]
when was the seven year plan
GDR
1959-65 [abandoned in 1962]
when was the new econimic system
GDR
1963-68
A series of plans under teh GDR
Two Year Plan, 1949-50
First Five Year Plan, 1951-55
Second Five Year Plan, 1956-60 (abandoned in 1958)
Seven Year Plan, 1959-65 (abandoned in 1962)
New Economic System, 1963-68
Target setting
successfullness of economic planning ?
The SED proclaimed the First Five Year Plan (1951-1955) as a success – targets were exceeded and production doubled since 1950
But ignores the facts that many factories were not constructed in suitable areas, and the goods were of poor quality. The aim was very much quantity before quality
Trabants are a good example of a substandard product (see next slide)
Planning was slow. Plans were out of date before they were implemented Unable to respond to short-term changes
Production of consumer goods was very low
So living standards improved very slowly
And huge differentials between the metalworker’s wage (less than 300 marks per month) and the manager (4000-15,000 per month + better canteens and housing). Many workers moved to the West.
example of GDR’s policy of quantity over quality
Trabant
first introduced in 1957
The Trabant’s build quality was poor, reliability was terrible, and it was loud, slow and poorly designed
when was the TV tower built and why
Built 1965-69 as a monument to Communist power towering over the West
But ordinary citizens were not allowed up lest they see the glittering lights and prosperous buildings of the West
Impact of Second Five Year Plan 1956-1960
More emphasis on consumer goods and technological progress
Economy grew by 12% in the late 1950s.
**Improved living standards **but rationing did not end until 1958
Nowhere near on the scale of the Economic Miracle in the West
Workers’ cultural centres and polytechnics were opened
Many essential goods such as bread had their prices set at low levels
A stabilisation in numbers moving to the West
Subsidising food prices meant that the state did not have money to invest in other sectors, e.g., transport or energy, or to modernise industry
So the underlying problems of the economy were not addressed
Impact of the Seven Year Plan 1959-1965
Aimed to align economic development with that of the Soviet Union.
Failed.
Industrial growth now declined - > increase in numbers leaving for the West.
Only stabilised by the building of the Wall.
1962 – abandonment of the 7YP.
significancve of the new economci system
This brought greater flexibility and offered workers some input, allowing them to share profits -> raised production levels and placed an emphasis on quality rather than quantity.
eval of economic policy
GDR
GDR workers were better off than other Soviet-dominated Eastern bloc countries
But the failure to develop consumer industries meant that many believed the situation in the West to be much better -> a drain of people to the West
The growth rates of the economy were also better than other Eastern bloc countries.
By 1960s, East Germany was ranked tenth in the world for economic production.
But on the Soviet model it could never develop a balanced economy with scope for growth.
Poor planning and mismanagement further reduced the potential for economic growth which encourage the flight to the West
growing unrest in the GDR
Caused largely by high expectations that life would be transformed, and disappointment that by 1953 it had not been, and there seemed to be less freedom.
Stricter border controls
Enforced collectivisation
Pressure to increase productivity
**1952 ‘Building of Socialism’ **announced - a policy that emphasised increasing productivity and rapid change
1953 – death of Stalin – the promise of greater freedoms - > unrest
Early June 1953 – Ulbricht was summoned to Moscow and told that his policies (border controls, pressure for increased productivity etc) were causing disquiet and he needed to change.
But contradictory messages came out
The workers were told that their conditions would become worse as productivity would have to rise by 10% but wages would remain the same. This message had not been checked or explained properly to the people.
when was teh uprising in 1953
GDR
17th june 1953
the july uprising 1953 in the GDR
16th June 1953 – workers on a big prestige building project of Stalinallee went on strike.
Called for a general strike the next day. Thousands joined in
Demanded the end of Ulbricht’s economic policies, his removal and democratic elections.
Ulbricht’s response: fearful of the loyalty of his own security forces, concerned for his own position -> Ulbricht called on Soviet forces to crush the rising.
impact of the july uprising
GDR
55 people crushed to death according to official figures, but probably more
The people did gain concessions:
1. the policy on working hours was ended
2. more consumer goods were to be produced -> improve living standards
The state became increasingly concerned about unrest and adopted a harder line with a massive growth in the size and powers of the Stasi
Position of Ulbricht was deliberately strengthened (must not look weak)
It drew the GDR closer to the Soviet bloc
The population of the GDR realised that they could expect no help from the west
A sense of resignation to their fate
agriculture in the GDR
This was not just an economic policy; it was an ideological policy
1945-1949 large estates (over 100 hectares) were seized without compensation, divided up and given to landless Germans and refugees. This was about 1/3 of agricultural land - Why did the Soviets do this?
Ideological establishment of equality and the breaking of the landed classes
agricultural probs faced by the GDR by 1950
+ impact of this
No modern machines
Refugees had little agricultural experience
Small holdings were too small to survive or make profit.
So:
- Crop and livestock yields were low
- People moved into the towns/cities
- People escaped into the West
Collectivisation in GDR
A fundamental principle of a communist planned economy
Soviets always prioritised industry over agriculture
By 1952 the SED became worried over food shortages
**Creation of ‘Land Production Cooperatives’ **(LPGs) – agricultural collectives managed by the state on the model of those established by Stalin in the USSR in the 1930s. (which included increased mechanisation and tractor lending stations)
Introduced on a voluntary basis so meant a slow start
Part of the ‘Building of Socialism’ programme (which contributed to the 1953 Uprising)
By 1953 13% of the land was not being farmed which in part explained The 1953 Uprising
NB – Post-Stalinist period led to a slow down in the pace of collectivisation
Further Waves of Collectivisation – 1959, 1960-1
By 1958 one-third of all farms were collectivised, i.e. most farming remained independent.
Farmers who did not join collectives were denied the use of machinery, and party officials were sent to villages to persuade people. But many remained unconvinced - > arrests and land confiscations
By 1962 – 85% of farms had been collectivised, often against the will of farmers
Another wave of refugees going west (peaked in 1961)
Rationing had to be reintroduced in 1961
In the long-term, farming became more efficient (1970s).
impact of collectivisation
DDR achieved its ideological aim of collectivising agriculture
Farming improved – DDR became more efficient
State subsidised farms (like EEC did) which led to cheaper food
Collectives owned by the people produced a total of 15 types of beer and around 30 types of liquor by the end of the 1980s
Despite the steep prices, high proof alcohol was popular and the average GDR citizen drank 23 bottles of liquor a year - more than double the amount consumed by the average citizen of the Federal Republic of Germany.
What does social transformation mean?
Classless society
Higher standards of living all round – better healthcare, education etc
Eradication of all capitalistic, right wing and fascist thinking
Use of education, indoctrination, propaganda
intro to social change GDR
WWII -> so many young men dead
**Of those left, so many (often skilled) fled to the West **in the period before 1961
Nationalisation of industry and agriculture had an impact on the social composition of the new state.
Provided opportunities for those willing to commit to the new system (e.g., peasants, working class, women)
Greater work opportunities in formerly rural areas, workers in factories took responsibility for overseeing other workers’ work
Former middle class lost positions as they were viewed as class enemies
**Women benefitted **– educational opportunities, communal facilities on collectives and in workplaces (e.g., creches and after-school facilities) and improved maternity care
churches in 1945 and GDR aims
1945 – high number of Christians in East Germany
15 m Protestants; 1 m Catholics
Aim of the regime – for the church to wither away
religion in other eastern bloc countries
USSR – churches pulled down, priests arrested and killed, churches closed down, Christians went underground
Czechoslovakia – destruction of all organised religion – church went underground
Hungary – widespread arrests, imprisonments and killing of Christians. Church went underground
Poland – Catholic schools were closed, crosses removed, but the church was allowed to continue. In the 1980s the church supported Solidarity ( a TU movement) in opposition to the Communist regime
Romania and Bulgaria – the Communist government took control of the church and the church submitted to the state, outwardly supporting the regime
churches in GDR
East German church still had contact with the West German church (the only institution that continued to have contact with the west)
The SED came to an accommodation with the church = ‘The Church in Socialism’
The Church was given a high degree of autonomy compared with other Communist regimes
BUT
- the church was watched closely – Stasi infiltration. Recruited pastors as Stasi informants on the faithful (meticulous research first before approaching a pastor)
- the** church was undermined and weakened by making it a disadvantage to be part of a church youth group**, and setting up rival activities and processes. A battle for allegiance.
Indoctrination of young people at school
1954 –the Jugendweihe (Youth Dedication Service) = an act of commitment to the atheist state. Failure to undergo this would mean discrimination at school, no university place, no professional career.
The church tried to oppose this, and urged their members to resist this, but by the end of the 1950s they had been forced to state that the ceremony did not contradict Christian teachings – i.e. a working agreement with the state.
what was the youth dedication service
GDR
an act of commitment to the atheist state. Failure to undergo this would mean discrimination at school, no university place, no professional career
when was the youth dedication service
GDR
1954
postscript 1
GDR
1958 – devastating food shortages. It kept raining.
Posters appeared:
And it rained and rained and rained and rained.
And there was no harvest.
These posters disappeared. New ones:
But there was no bread. The shops were empty.
Postscript 2
GDR
In 1982 Christians in Leipzig began a prayer meeting every Monday evening to pray for peace.
Began with a dozen people.
1989 – 8000 crammed in, and thousands more outside.
Monday 9th October 1989 - authorities expected trouble – armed police. After an hour, the pastor led the congregation out onto the Augustplatz, holding candles. Peaceful…. No fire…..
A week later 120,000 and a week later 300,000 on this prayer rally.
9th November – the wall came down
