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The Final Exam 😨 Flashcards

1
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

Generalizations from specific observations

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2
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

Specific conclusions from general principles

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3
Q

Evolution

A

Change in heritable characteristics over generations

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4
Q

Water Polarity

A

Oxygen slight negative charge, hydrogen slight positive charges

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4
Q

Natural Selection

A

Favorable traits lead to survival and reproduction

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5
Q

Acidic pH

A

pH below 7

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6
Q

Macromolecules

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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7
Q

Hydrolysis Reaction

A

Breaking molecules by adding a water molecule

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7
Q

Buffer

A

Solution resisting pH changes by absorbing/releasing ions

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8
Q

Dehydration Synthesis

A

Joining molecules by removing a water molecule

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9
Q

Disaccharide

A

Carbohydrate of two monosaccharide units

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9
Q

Monosaccharide

A

Single sugar molecule like glucose or fructose

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10
Q

Polysaccharide

A

Complex carbohydrate of many monosaccharide units

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11
Q

Purine Bases

A

Adenine and guanine nitrogenous bases

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12
Q

Amino Acid

A

Molecule with amino group, carboxyl group, and side chain

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12
Q

Pyrimidine Bases

A

Cytosine, thymine, uracil nitrogenous bases

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13
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate, primary energy carrier in cells

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14
Q

DNA Base Pairing

A

Adenine with thymine, cytosine with guanine

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15
Q

Peptide Bond

A

Covalent bond joining amino acids in a protein

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16
Q

Protein Structure Levels

A

Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

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17
Q

Enzyme

A

Biological catalyst speeding up chemical reactions

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17
Q

Denaturation

A

Loss of protein structure and function due to external factors

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17
Q

Saturated Fatty Acid

A

Single bonds between carbon atoms, saturated with hydrogen

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18
Q

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A

Double bonds between carbon atoms, fewer hydrogen atoms

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19
Q

Triglyceride

A

Lipid with three fatty acid molecules bonded to glycerol

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20
Q

Steroid

A

Lipid molecule with a fused ring structure

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21
Q

Phospholipid

A

Lipid with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails

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21
Q

Robert Hooke

A

Discovered cells in cork slices, termed them ‘cells.’

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22
Q

Cell Theory

A

States all organisms are made of cells, the cell is the basic unit, and cells come from pre-existing cells.

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23
Q

Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

A

High ratio in small cells aids in efficient exchange.

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24
Q

Light Microscope

A

Used for low magnification observations of cells.

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25
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

Structural component of bacterial cell walls.

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26
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Lack nucleus and organelles; include bacteria.

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26
Q

Archaea

A

Found in extreme environments like hot springs.

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27
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Site for protein synthesis and modification.

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28
Q

Endosymbiotic Theory

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as prokaryotes.

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29
Q

Virus Structure

A

Genome surrounded by protein capsid; may have envelope.

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30
Q

Bacteriophage Life Cycle

A

Attachment, injection, replication, assembly, and lysis.

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31
Q

Cell Membrane Composition

A

Made of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

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32
Q

Phospholipid Bilayer

A

Hydrophilic heads outward, hydrophobic tails inward.

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33
Q

Integral Proteins

A

Embedded in membrane, can span its width.

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33
Q

Cholesterol in Membrane

A

Stabilizes fluidity, modulates membrane fluidity.

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34
Q

Passive Transport

A

Movement across membrane without energy input.

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35
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

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35
Q

Simple Diffusion

A

Molecules move directly through lipid bilayer.

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36
Q

Endocytosis

A

Cell engulfs substances by forming vesicles.

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36
Q

Hypertonic Solution

A

Higher solute concentration outside cell, causing water loss.

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37
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics

A

Energy conservation law.

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38
Q

Redox Reactions

A

Involve electron transfer; reduction and oxidation.

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39
Q

Entropy

A

Measure of disorder in a system.

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39
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

Entropy tends to increase over time in closed systems.

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40
Q

ΔG (Gibbs Free Energy)

A

Determines spontaneity of a reaction.

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41
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

Require energy input, have positive ΔG, and are non-spontaneous.

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41
Q

ΔG

A

Gibbs free energy change; positive = non-spontaneous, negative = spontaneous.

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42
Q

Exergonic reactions

A

Release energy, have negative ΔG, and are spontaneous.

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43
Q

Activation energy

A

Energy needed to start a chemical reaction and overcome the barrier.

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43
Q

Catalyst

A

Speeds up reactions by lowering activation energy; like enzymes.

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44
Q

Substrate

A

Molecule acted upon by an enzyme in a chemical reaction.

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44
Q

Autotrophs

A

Organisms producing organic molecules from inorganic sources.

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45
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Organisms obtaining organic molecules from other organisms.

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46
Q

Stomata

A

Pores on leaves regulating gas exchange during photosynthesis.

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46
Q

Photosystem

A

Complex capturing light energy during photosynthesis.

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47
Q

Mitosis

A

Cell division for growth and repair, ensuring genetic fidelity.

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47
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Cell organelles where photosynthesis occurs.

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48
Q

Binary fission

A

Asexual reproduction in prokaryotes; cell division into two.

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48
Q

Kinetochore

A

Protein structure at the centromere for spindle fiber attachment.

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49
Q

Double-stranded DNA

A

Molecule carrying genetic information in cells.

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49
Q

Chromatin

A

DNA and histone protein complex forming chromosomes.

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50
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

Chromosome pairs with the same genes but may have different alleles.

50
Q

Sister chromatids

A

Identical chromosome copies produced by DNA replication.

51
Q

Centromere

A

Region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are joined.

52
Q

Karyotype

A

Visual representation of an individual’s chromosomes.

52
Q

Autosomal Chromosomes

A

22 pairs in humans, not related to sex determination

53
Q

Haploid Cells

A

Contain one set of chromosomes (n)

54
Q

Cell Cycle

A

Includes interphase (G1, S, G2) and mitotic (M) phase

55
Q

Diploid Cells

A

Contain two sets of chromosomes (2n)

55
Q

Meiosis

A

Produces four haploid daughter cells with genetic variability

56
Q

G0 Phase

A

Non-dividing state, exits active cell cycle

56
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Division of the cytoplasm after nuclear division

57
Q

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

A

Regulate cell cycle progression and ensure accuracy

58
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

Involves fusion of gametes for genetic recombination

59
Q

Synapsis

A

Pairing of homologous chromosomes in meiosis

59
Q

Asexual Reproduction

A

Produces genetically identical offspring

59
Q

Crossing Over

A

Exchange of genetic material in prophase I of meiosis

59
Q

Independent Assortment

A

Random alignment of homologous chromosomes

60
Q

Phenotype

A

Observable traits of an organism

60
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Improper separation of chromosomes during division

61
Q

Gregor Mendel

A

Father of modern genetics, studied pea plants

61
Q

Alleles

A

Alternate forms of a gene at the same locus

62
Q

Genetic Variability

A

Occurs through independent assortment, crossing over, and fertilization

63
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic makeup of an organism

64
Q

Codominance

A

Both alleles contribute to the phenotype in a heterozygote

64
Q

Monohybrid Crosses

A

Inheritance of a single trait governed by one gene

65
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

Heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between homozygotes

66
Q

Loci

A

Specific positions on chromosomes where alleles are found

67
Q

Epistasis

A

One gene’s expression masks or modifies another gene

68
Q

Sex-Linked Gene

A

Gene located on a sex chromosome, inherited differently in males and females

68
Q

Polygenic Inheritance

A

Trait controlled by multiple genes, leading to continuous variation

68
Q

SRY Gene

A

On Y chromosome, initiates male sex determination

69
Q

Pleiotropy

A

Single gene influences multiple seemingly unrelated traits

70
Q

Color blindness

A

Example of X-linked recessive trait.

71
Q

X-linked recessive traits

A

Expressed in males due to single X chromosome.

72
Q

Cytoplasmic inheritance

A

Genes located outside nuclear chromosomes.

73
Q

Hemophilia

A

Example of X-linked recessive trait.

74
Q

Genomic imprinting

A

Gene expression dependent on parent of origin.

75
Q

Genetic recombination

A

Exchange of genetic material between chromosomes.

76
Q

Trisomy

A

Presence of an additional chromosome.

77
Q

Monosomy

A

Absence of one chromosome.

78
Q

Turner syndrome

A

Associated with XO chromosome.

78
Q

Down syndrome

A

Absence of one chromosome.

79
Q

Klinefelter syndrome

A

Associated with XXY chromosome.

80
Q

Triple X syndrome

A

Associated with XXX chromosome.

81
Q

Jacob’s syndrome

A

XYY syndrome with extra Y chromosome.

81
Q

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

A

Genetic testing from placental cells.

82
Q

Genetic counseling

A

Support for genetic conditions and family planning.

83
Q

Central dogma of molecular biology

A

Genetic info flow: DNA to RNA to protein.

83
Q

Transcription

A

DNA to RNA synthesis process.

83
Q

Amniocentesis

A

Genetic testing from amniotic fluid.

84
Q

mRNA

A

Carries genetic info for protein synthesis.

84
Q

Translation

A

Decoding mRNA to amino acids for protein synthesis.

85
Q

Coding strand

A

Decoding mRNA to amino acids for protein synthesis.

86
Q

Template strand

A

Decoding mRNA to amino acids for protein synthesis.

87
Q

tRNA

A

Carries amino acids during translation.

88
Q

rRNA

A

Structural component of ribosomes.

89
Q

Prokaryotic transcription

A

Occurs in the cytoplasm.

90
Q

Eukaryotic transcription

A

Occurs in the nucleus.

91
Q

Amino acids

A

Building blocks of proteins.

92
Q

Genetic code

A

Rules for translating mRNA to proteins.

93
Q

Codon

A

Three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA.

94
Q

Stop codons

A

Signals termination of translation.

95
Q

Start codon

A

AUG codes for methionine and translation start.

96
Q

Degenerate genetic code

A

Multiple codons for most amino acids.

96
Q

Universal genetic code

A

Shared code across living organisms.

97
Q

Gene parts

A

Coding and regulatory regions.

98
Q

Transcription stages

A

Initiation, elongation, termination.

99
Q

RNA polymerases

A

Enzymes for transcribing DNA into RNA.

100
Q

Post-transcriptional modifications

A

Addition of cap and poly-A tail to mRNA.

101
Q

Exons

A

Coding regions in mature mRNA.

102
Q

Introns

A

Non-coding regions removed during splicing.

103
Q

mRNA splicing

A

Removal of introns and joining of exons.

104
Q

Non-coding DNA

A

Significant portion in eukaryotic genomes.

105
Q

Anticodon

A

Three-nucleotide sequence in tRNA.

105
Q

tRNA charging

A

Process of adding amino acid to tRNA.

105
Q

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

A

Enzyme transferring activated amino acid to tRNA

106
Q

Ribosome

A

Molecular machine with A, P, and E sites

106
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid

106
Q

Translation stages

A

Molecular machine with A, P, and E sites

106
Q

Post-translational modifications

A

Changes to proteins after synthesis

107
Q

Chargaff’s rule

A

Equal A=T, G=C in DNA

108
Q

Rosalind Franklin

A

Provided X-ray evidence for DNA structure

109
Q

Watson and Crick

A

Proposed DNA double helix structure

110
Q

Nucleotide

A

DNA unit with phosphate, sugar, base

111
Q

Purines and pyrimidines

A

A,G purines; T,C pyrimidines

112
Q

Sugar types in DNA

A

Deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA

113
Q

Sugar-phosphate backbone

A

Alternating sugar-phosphate chain in DNA

114
Q

Base pairing in DNA

A

A-T, G-C hydrogen bonds in DNA

115
Q

Anti-parallel strands

A

Opposite 5’ to 3’ orientation in DNA

115
Q

Semi-conservative replication

A

DNA replication yielding two daughter molecules

116
Q

Helicase

A

Unwinds DNA double helix

117
Q

DNA primase

A

Synthesizes RNA primers for DNA polymerase

118
Q

DNA polymerase

A

Adds nucleotides to DNA chain

118
Q

DNA ligase

A

Joins DNA fragments during replication

119
Q

DNA replication components

A

Template DNA, nucleotides, enzymes

119
Q

DNA topoisomerase

A

Relieves torsional strain in DNA replication

120
Q

Origins of replication

A

Sites where DNA replication begins

121
Q

Leading and lagging strands

A

Continuous and discontinuous DNA synthesis

122
Q

Replication fork

A

Region where DNA strands separate

123
Q

Single-stranded binding proteins

A

Stabilize unwound DNA during replication

124
Q

Proofreading by DNA polymerase

A

Corrects errors in DNA synthesis

125
Q

Mutation

A

Change in DNA sequence with various effects

126
Q

Genomics and Bioinformatics

A

Study of genomes and computational analysis

Biology (6 decks)

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