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Biochem Take 2. > The Feed Fast Cycle. > Flashcards

The Feed Fast Cycle. Flashcards

1
Q

Define enzyme induction?

A

An increase of the amount of a particular enzyme in a certain tissue.

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2
Q

What is the well fed state also known as?

A

The absorptive state.

The post prandial phase.

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3
Q

How long does the absorptive state last for?

A

Around 2-4 hours after a meal has been consumed.

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4
Q

What nutrients are in high concentrations in the well fed state?

A

Proteins.

Glucose.

Fatty acids.

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5
Q

What hormone is released in the well fed state?

A

Insulin.

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6
Q

Is the well fed state an anabolic or catabolic state?

A

An anabolic state.

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7
Q

Why is the well fed state considered to be anabolic state?

A

As the nutrients consumed are used to build various structures such as glucagon and TAGS.

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8
Q

What nutrient is the main provider of fuel that is used to build molecules in the body?

A

Glucose.

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9
Q

What organs will have an altered metabolism in the well fed state?

A

The liver.

The muscle.

Adipose tissue.

The brain.

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10
Q

How many mechanisms are there that control the rate of metabolism within the body by influencing enzyme activity?

A

4.

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11
Q

What are the 4 mechanisms that control the rate of metabolism within the body by influencing enzyme activity and what are there speeds?

A

Availability of an enzymes substrate. (Fast).

Allosteric activation and inhibition of enzymes. (Fast).

Covalent modification of enzymes e.g. phosphorylation and de-phosphorylation by phosphatase’s. (Fast or slow).

Induction and repression of enzyme synthesis. (Slow).

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12
Q

In the well fed state, what will alter how enzymes function?

A

Insulin.

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13
Q

Can the 4 4 mechanisms that control the rate of metabolism within the body by influencing enzyme activity occur at the same time?

A

Yes.

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14
Q

How are most of the enzymes modified in the well fed state?

A

Most are covalently modified and activated by de-phosphorylation.

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15
Q

Will insulin phosphorylate or de-phosphorylate enzymes?

A

De-phosphorylate.

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16
Q

What enzymes will insulin de-phosphorylate to inhibit them?

A

Glycogen phosphorylase.

Fructose bisphosphatase 2.

Hormone sensitive lipase.

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17
Q

The dephosphorylation of hormone sensitive lipase inhibits what process?

A

TAG degradation.

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18
Q

Will fructose 2,6 bisphosphate produced in the well fed state?

A

Yes.

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19
Q

Fructose 2,6 bisphosphate stimulates what metabolic process?

A

Glycolysis.

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20
Q

Is fructose 2,6 bisphosphate produced in the glycolysis pathway?

A

No.

It is produced in a separate pathway.

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21
Q

What glycolytic enzyme will the presence of fructose 2,6 bisphosphate stimulate?

A

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1).

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22
Q

What gluconeogenic enzyme will the presence of fructose 2,6 bisphosphate inhibit?

A

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase.

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23
Q

What enzymes make up the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis?

A

Phosphofructokinase-1.

Fructose bisphosphatase-2.

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24
Q

Is the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis phosphorylated in the well fed state or the fasting state?

A

In the fasting state.

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25
Q

Is the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis de-phosphorylated in the well fed state or the fasting state?

A

In the well fed state.

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26
Q

What process occurs if the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis or gluconeogenesis is de-phosphorylated?

A

Glycolysis.

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27
Q

What process occurs if the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis or gluconeogenesis is phosphorylated?

A

Gluconeogenesis.

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28
Q

If the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis or gluconeogenesis is phosphorylated, what enzyme will be active?

A

Phospho-fructokinase-2.

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29
Q

If the bi-functional enzyme in step 3 of glycolysis or gluconeogenesis is de-phosphorylated, what enzyme will be active?

A

Fructose bisphosphatase-2.

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30
Q

What is the job of phospho-fructokinase-2 in glycolysis?

A

It converts fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 2,6-BP.

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31
Q

What is the job of fructose bisphosphatase-2 in glycolysis?

A

It converts fructose 2,-BP to fructose 6 phosphate.

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32
Q

Is glycogen synthase phosphorylated in the well fed state or in the fasting state?

A

In the well fed state.

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33
Q

Will insulin de-phosphorylate glycogen synthase?

A

Yes.

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34
Q

What glycogenic enzyme is inhibited by insulin?

A

Glycogen phosphorylase.

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35
Q

What is glycogen synthase A?

A

Active glycogen synthase that is de-phosphorylated.

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36
Q

What is glycogen synthase B?

A

Inactive glycogen synthase that is phosphorylated.

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37
Q

What is glycogen phosphorylase A?

A

Active glycogen phosphorylase that is phosphorylated.

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38
Q

What is glycogen phosphorylase B?

A

Inactive glycogen phosphorylase that is de-phosphorylated.

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39
Q

When insulin de-phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase, what process in inhibited?

A

Glycogen degradation.

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40
Q

What is the job of pyruvate kinase?

A

It is the final enzyme of glycolysis and forms pyruvate.

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41
Q

What type of process will inhibit pyruvate kinase?

A

Covalent modification.

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42
Q

How does insulin activate pyruvate kinase?

A

It de-phosphorylates it.

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43
Q

How does glucagon inhibit pyruvate kinase?

A

It phosphorylates it.

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44
Q

Will pyruvate kinase be inhibited in the well fed or fasting state?

A

It is active in the well fed state.

It is inactive in the fasting state.

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45
Q

Is the pyruvate de-hydrogenase complex active when it is phosphorylated or de-phosphorylated?

A

When it is de-phosphorylated.

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46
Q

What will inhibit the pyruvate de-hydrogenase complex?

A

Phosphorylation by glucagon.

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47
Q

What process is ACoA carboxylase the key enzyme for?

A

Fatty acid synthesis.

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48
Q

What is the substrate for ACoA carboxylase?

A

ACoA.

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49
Q

When is ACoA carboxylase inactivated?

A

When it is phosphorylated by glucagon.

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50
Q

When is ACoA carboxylase activated?

A

When it is de-phosphorylated by insulin.

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51
Q

What enzymes will be inhibited by de-phosphorylation by insulin?

A

Glycogen phosphorylase.

Fructose bisphosphatase 2.

Hormone sensitive lipase.

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52
Q

What molecules is the liver flooded with after a meal has been consumed?

A

Glucose.

Amino acids.

Chylomicron remnants.

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53
Q

What does the liver use glucose for?

A

To make glycogen.

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54
Q

What does the liver use amino acids for?

A

For protein synthesis.

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55
Q

What does the liver use chylomicron remnants for?

A

To make TAGs.

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56
Q

Which glucose transporter brings glucose into the liver from the bloodstream?

A

GLUT-2 transporters.

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57
Q

Are GLUT-2 transporters insulin sensitive?

A

No.

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58
Q

What will activate GLUT-2 transporters to bring glucose into the liver from the bloodstream?

A

High blood glucose levels.

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59
Q

What percentage of all glucose in the bloodstream is used up by the liver?

A

Around 60%.

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60
Q

Consumption of a lot of carbohydrates means that the liver will make a lot of what molecules?

A

Glycogen.

Pyruvate.

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61
Q

What can pyruvate be converted to in the PDH complex?

A

ACoA.

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62
Q

What can ACoA be used for?

A

Fatty acid synthesis.

It can enter the TCA cycle.

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63
Q

What is a glycolytic intermediate that can make glycerol phosphate?

A

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP).

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64
Q

What can glycerol phosphate be used to make?

A

The glycerol backbone found in TAGs.

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65
Q

What will the liver use amino acids for?

A

Protein synthesis.

To make ACoA.

To make intermediates for the TCA cycle.

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66
Q

Can the liver can be thought of as a centre for the processing and distribution of nutrients?

A

Yes.

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67
Q

How many available nutrients will the liver use up?

A

It will use all the nutrients that it needs.

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68
Q

What does the liver do with all the nutrients that it doesn’t need?

A

They will will be released as VLDL lipids.

Any excess glucose will be stored as glycogen.

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69
Q

What tissue is used to store excess fatty acids?

A

Adipose tissue.

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70
Q

Adipose tissue stores fatty acids in what form?

A

As TAGs.

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71
Q

How does adipose tissue pick up fatty acids?

A

From circulating chylomicrons and VLDL molecules.

72
Q

What happens to TAGs when energy levels are low.

A

They are degraded into free fatty acids and glycerol and the fatty acids are used for energy production.

73
Q

What transporters will bring glucose into adipose tissue from the bloodstream?

A

GLUT-4 transporters.

74
Q

What provides energy for adipose tissue?

A

Glycolysis.

75
Q

What glycolytic intermediate can adipose tissue use to make the glycerol backbone used in TAGs?

A

DHAP.

76
Q

In the well fed state is there an increase in glucose uptake by adipose tissue

A

Yes.

77
Q

What enzyme is de-activated by insulin?

A

Hormone sensitive lipase (HSL).

78
Q

Is glucose uptake in skeletal muscle is increased in the well fed state?

A

Yes.

79
Q

What glucose transporters bring glucose from the blood into the muscle?

A

GLUT-4.

80
Q

What is the glucose that is bought into the muscle cells used for?

A

To replenish muscular glycogen stores and to provide energy via glycolysis etc.

81
Q

What are the amino acids that enter the muscle tissue used for?

A

To replace proteins that have been broken down by exercise or fasting.

82
Q

What are the 2 anabolic processes that the muscle is involved in in the well fed state?

A

Protein and glycogen synthesis.

83
Q

How much glucose will the brain take from the bloodstream?

A

All of the glucose that it needs.

84
Q

What kind of glucose transporters bring glucose from the blood into the brain?

A

High affinity glucose transporters such as GLUT-1 and GLUT-3.

85
Q

What happens to glucose once it enters the brain?

A

It is oxidised to form CO2, water and energy.

86
Q

Which glucose transporters are insulin sensitive?

A

GLUT-4 transporters.

87
Q

Which tissues are said to be insulin sensitive?

A

Muscle and adipose tissue.

88
Q

Are the brain or red blood cells insulin sensitive?

A

No.

As they are always picking up glucose.

89
Q

Does insulin induce the liver to take up glucose from the bloodstream?

A

No.

Glucose enters the liver because glucose levels are high.

90
Q

What tissues are amino acids usually supplied to?

A

Most tissues, particularly the liver and muscle for protein synthesis.

91
Q

How are chylomicron remnants usually supplied to the body?

A

Via dietary fats.

92
Q

What happens to chylomicron remnants in the liver?

A

The fatty acids are picked up by lipoprotein-lipase (LPL) and stored in the adipocytes.

93
Q

What is the fasting state also known as?

A

The post absorptive phase.

94
Q

When does the fasting state usually begin?

A

Around 4-5 hours after a meal has been consumed.

95
Q

What decreases in the blood during the fasting state?

A

A decrease in blood glucose, amino acids and lipoproteins.

96
Q

How will the fasting state affect hormone levels?

A

There will be a decrease insulin synthesis and an increase in glucagon and epinephrine.

97
Q

What effects does the fasting state have on the liver?

A

The liver will synthesise glucose.

98
Q

Why does the liver synthesise glucose in the fasting state?

A

As red blood cells and the brain need glucose to be able to continue functioning.

99
Q

Is the fasting state a catabolic or anabolic hormone?

A

Catabolic.

100
Q

What is the function of the liver in the fasting state?

A

It start to produce glucose instead of consuming it.

101
Q

What kind of factory does the liver become in the fasting state?

A

A glucose factory.

102
Q

What are the 2 methods that the liver uses to produce glucose?

A

Glycogenolysis via the break down of glycogen.

The synthesis of of glucose via gluconeogenesis.

103
Q

What provides the energy for the liver in the fasting state?

A

The β oxidation of fatty acids.

104
Q

When the liver starts to oxidises fatty acids, what metabolic process will also be increased?

A

Ketogenesis.

105
Q

What enzyme will glucagon and epinephrine activate in fat tissue and what does this enzyme do?

A

Hormone sensitive lipase which will break down TAGS to release fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstream.

106
Q

What can the glycerol that is released from beta oxidation of fatty acids be used for in the fasting state?

A

Glycerol can become a precursor of gluconeogenesis via conversion to glycerol phosphate and then to DHAP.

107
Q

How are the cleaved free fatty acids transported through the bloodstream in the fasting state.?

A

They are bound to albumin.

108
Q

Where are the free fatty acids that are cleaved by HSL delivered to?

A

Multiple tissues.

109
Q

Is the muscle fuelled by glucose in the fasting state?

A

No. (except by its own glycogen stores).

110
Q

What processes will provide the energy for the muscle tissue in the fasting state?

A

The β oxidation of fatty acids.

Ketone bodies.

111
Q

How does the muscle contribute to gluconeogenesis?

A

It will degrade proteins to provide amino acids for gluconeogenesis.

112
Q

What will power the brain in the fasting state?

A

Glucose that is produced by the liver via gluconeogenesis.

113
Q

If fasting continues for a very long time will the brain still run on glucose?

A

No.

If fasting goes on long enough then the brain will be powered by glucose and ketone bodies.

114
Q

What prompts the brain to be powered by ketone bodies?

A

When the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood is high.

115
Q

How long does it take for the brain to start running on ketone bodies?

A

Around 2 weeks.

116
Q

What is the smallest of the bodies energy reserves?

A

Glycogen stores.

117
Q

What is the second largest of the bodies energy stores?

A

Protein which is around 24 times larger than glycogen stores.

118
Q

What is the largest of the bodies energy stores?

A

Fat store which has around 5 times more energy than protein storage and around 140 times more than glycogen.

119
Q

What are the average weights of the bodies 3 energy stores?

A

Glycogen = 0.2 Kg.

Proteins = 6 Kg.

Fats = 15 Kg.

120
Q

What storage is incredibly important during fasts?

A

Fat storage, as it has so much energy.

121
Q

What is glycogen degraded to give?

A

Glucose.

122
Q

When will proteins be used as an energy source?

A

When they are turned over.

123
Q

How do proteins give energy?

A

They are degraded to amino acids which can be converted to ketone acids which can be used to make glucose.

124
Q

What form of energy are fats degraded to give?

A

ACoA which can be oxidised TCA cycle.

125
Q

What pathways are activated by glucagon and epinephrine?

A

Gluconeogenesis.

Glycogen degradation.

Beta oxidation of fatty acids.

126
Q

The production of glucagon will up-regulate and activate enzymes in what processes?

A

Glucose and energy making processes.

127
Q

What 3 enzymes are up-regulated in the fasting state?

A

PEP carboxykinase.

Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase.

Glucose 6-phosphatase.

128
Q

What 2 gluconeogenic enzymes are activated in the fasting state?

A

Pyruvate carboxylase.

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase.

129
Q

How is pyruvate carboxylase activated in the fasting state?

A

By ACoA from fatty acid oxidation.

By phosphorylation.

130
Q

How is fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase activated in the fasting state?

A

By decreased fructose 2,6 bisphosphate due to phosphorylation of PFK-1.

131
Q

What glycolytic enzyme becomes less active in the fasting state?

A

Glucokinase as it works at high glucose concentrations.

132
Q

What organs will use amino acids from the breakdown of muscle proteins to make glucose?

A

The liver and sometimes the kidneys.

133
Q

What is common pathway that converts amino acids to pyruvate?

A

The glucose-alanine pathway.

134
Q

How many alanines need to be converted to how many pyruvates to make a glucose molecule?

A

2 alanines will converted to 2 pyruvate molecules which are converted to 1 glucose molecule.

135
Q

What pathway converts pyruvate to glucose?

A

Gluconeogenesis.

136
Q

Can ACoA be used for gluconeogenesis?

A

Yes.

137
Q

Where is ACoA derived from in the fasting state?

A

From the β oxidation of fatty acids.

138
Q

Glucagon will cause an up-regulation of which gluconeogenic enzymes in the fasting state?

A

Glucose-6-phosphatase.

Fructose-1-6-bisphosphatase.

PEP carboxykinase.

139
Q

What is the first metabolic pathway to be activated in the fasting state?

A

Glycogenolysis in the liver.

140
Q

What pathways takes over from glycogenolysis in the fasting state?

A

As glycogen stores decrease, gluconeogenesis will take over and will synthesise glucose.

141
Q

How long will gluconeogenesis carry on producing glucose for after a meal?

A

For a long time after a meal and will continue for very long periods of time.

142
Q

Is muscle glycogen broken down in short fasts?

A

No.

Only in long fasts.

143
Q

What are the 3 main precursors for gluconeogenesis?

A

Amino acids from muscle.

Lactate.

Glycerol.

144
Q

What gluconeogenic pathway is obtained via the CORI cycle?

A

Lactate.

145
Q

When is lactate released into the bloodstream?

A

In anaerobic glycolysis by cells that lack mitochondria.

By exercising muscle.

146
Q

What happens to lactate in the fasting state?

A

It enters the bloodstream and is picked up by the liver to enter the CORI cycle.

147
Q

What happens in the CORI cycle?

A

Lactate is converted to pyruvate.

Pyruvate can then enter gluconeogenesis.

148
Q

What enzyme converts lactate to pyruvate in the CORI cycle?

A

Lactate dehydrogenase.

149
Q

What pathway commonly converts amino acids to pyruvate?

A

The alanine pyruvate cycle.

150
Q

What happens in the alanine pyruvate cycle?

A

Alanine from protein turnover is released into the blood where it will travel to the liver.

In the liver alanine is converted to pyruvate.

151
Q

Is alanine the only amino acid that can be converted to pyruvate?

A

No.

Many other amino acids can be converted to pyruvate but, alanine is the most common.

152
Q

What initiates the liver to start using fatty acids as an energy source?

A

Glucagon which is active when blood glucose levels are low.

153
Q

What happens to the levels of fatty acids in the blood after a few hours of fasting?

A

After a few hours of fasting, the amount of fatty acids in the blood will rise quite sharply before levelling off.

154
Q

What is the main source of fatty acids in the beta oxidation of fatty acids?

A

TAGs from adipose tissue.

155
Q

What stimulates the breakdown of TAGs?

A

It is due lipolysis which is the due to the stimulation of HSL by epinephrine via the beta adrenergic receptor.

156
Q

Fatty acids in the blood can provide energy to what organs in the fasting state?

A

The liver.

Muscle tissue.

Other tissues.

157
Q

The beta oxidation of fatty acids provides what molecule?

A

ACoA.

158
Q

The liver use ACoA to make what molecule in the fasting state?

A

Ketone bodies.

159
Q

Why does the liver make ketone bodies?

A

ACoA can’t be released in the bloodstream, so ketone bodies transport ACoA to cells that use them for metabolism.

160
Q

What form are the 2 forms that ketone bodies released in?

A

Beta hydroxybuterate.

Acetoacetate.

161
Q

How long does it take for ketone bodies to be released by the liver?

A

After a short amount of time in starvation.

162
Q

How will the concentration of ketone bodies rise as a fast continues?

A

They will to rise to a higher level than fatty acids.

163
Q

How long does a period of starvation need to take before the body will mostly run on ketone bodies?

A

After 2 weeks of starvation.

164
Q

Can the brain pick up ketone bodies at low concentrations?

A

No.

165
Q

When will the brain pick up ketone bodies?

A

After long periods of starvation when a high concentration of ketone bodies will be present in the blood

166
Q

After a long period of fasting, what will the brain use to gain energy?

A

50% glucose and 50% ketone bodies for its energy.

167
Q

Ketone bodies are an alternative to what energy source?

A

Ketone bodies.

168
Q

What are ketone bodies derived from?

A

2 ACoAs.

169
Q

What is the most common ketone body?

A

3-hydroxybuterate.

170
Q

What is the only organ that can make ketone bodies?

A

The liver.

171
Q

What tissue can use ketone bodies?

A

Tissues that have mitochondria.

172
Q

What energy source will adipose tissue provide the body with in the fasting state?

A

Fatty acids.

173
Q

What molecule stores most acids in adipose tissue?

A

TAGs.

174
Q

Are more or less chylomicrons found in the blood during the fasting state?

A

Fewer as the fatty acids are being broken down rather than stored.

175
Q

Does muscle tissue pick up glucose from the blood in the fasting state?

A

No.

176
Q

What powers muscle tissue in the fasting state?

A

Fatty acids and ketone bodies.

177
Q

What energy source is provided by the muscle in the fasting state?

A

Large amounts of amino acids from protein degradation that can be used for glucose synthesis by the liver.

Biochem Take 2. (24 decks)

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