The Fascist State π€²ππ¨πΏβπ¦°π§πΆβπ«οΈπΆβπ«οΈποΈποΈπ©πΎβπ¦²π©πΎβ𦲠Flashcards
1
Q
Why did Mussolini establish youth groups?
A
To create a loyal generation of Italians devoted to fascism that would later play a key role in the rebuilding and power of Italy
2
Q
How many fascist youth groups were there up until 1924, how many were involved?
A
3 Fascist groups had been set up:
- December 1921: The Fascist Youth Front was set up for boys aged 14-17
- After Mussoliniβs appointment as PM, the Gruppi Universitari Fascisti was set up in March 1923
- Finally, after this, the Balilla was set up for children ages 8-14
Only 3000 children were involved with fascist youth groups by 1924 - as they were poorly organised and competed with other political youth groups at the time
3
Q
What Happened to youth groups as Mussolini consolidated his dictatorship?
A
The youth became more formalised and organised. On the 3rd April 1926 - The Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was created by formal decree, in aims to provide physical and moral benefit for the youth for ages 8-18.
4
Q
In 1934, how was the Balilla reconstructed?
A
It was reconstructed into 3 groups:
- Figli della lupa (sons of the she wolf) 6-8
- Balilla 8-14
- Avanguardisti 14-17
Girls also had a sespretae organisation:
Figlie Della Lupa (daughters of the she wolf) 6-8
Piccole Italiane (Little Italians) 8-13
Giovane Italliane (Young Italian women) 14-17
5
Q
What controlled the onb
A
The party to the ministry of national education- created in 1929 to oversee education and create a loyal generation of fascists
6
Q
Membership was not compulsory beyond 11 until 1939, what were consequences of not having a membership?
A
- Made it more difficult to enrol in further education
- Hindered employment in the civil service
- Was seen as a reason to suspect people of being anti fascists
7
Q
What did being a member of the ONB otherwise provide, in terms of benefits?
A
The ONB provided access to special scholarships and provided access to jobs
8
Q
How were the different age groups trained
A
8-14: They were trained in the moral and spiritual defence of the country.
14+: They were involved in gymnastic and sports programmes to prepare them physically for the military.
At 18: They had to undergo military training
Training often included marching, wrestling, shooting practice, boxing and bomb throwing .
The girls were also taught gymnastics to ensure Italy had fit mothers who would bear healthy children
9
Q
What were children taught at the compulsory school for ages 6-11?
A
They were taught about patriotic Italian form classical Rome to the current fascist regime and were taught to make links between Italys heroes, especially Caesar and Mussolini. Textbooks in schools highlighted how badly the Italians were treated after the war and how fascism prevented a communist overthrow.
10
Q
When were anti fascist removed as teachers?
A
In the 1920s
11
Q
What were some changes to education?
A
- portrait of Mussolini in every class
- notebooks have Mussolini on front
- 1926: 101 of 317 history textbooks banned
- all dialects banned
- 1935: military education in secondary schools introduced that covered tactics and stuff
- 1936: lessons of fascist culture introduced
- 1938: anti semitism taught
12
Q
Why were uni students not a prioty?
A
There was little to no time to indoctrinate them as they are too old. However they did introduce things like the the fascist uni youth which provided sports facilities and half price admissions to entertainments
13
Q
How did Mussolini control the teachers
A
1929 - teachers had to take an oath of loyalty
1931 - the teachers association merged into the fascist association. Membership became compulsory in β37.
1931 - professors also had to take oath of loyalty, 11/1250 refused
1933,p - all teachers had to be party members
1934 - a fascist uniform had to be worn
1938 - Jewish teachers dismissed
14
Q
What are some educational statistics?
A
Illiteracy was 30% in 1922. Dropped to 21% in 1931. By 1936 it was 17%
15
Q
Was indoctrination of the youth successful in creating a loyal generation of fascist?
A
Many of the youth didnβt join the youth groups out of fascist motivation, but purely for the activities it provided, as well as providing scholarship and job opportunities.
There is also a contrast between girls and boys who took part in education post 11. Girls were less likely to do so as girls did not like the dull activities of learning how to be a mother and a survey Rome in 1937 found that girls would more like to do the physical activities that the boys were doing. The north and south also displayed considerable difference between education beyond ages 11. The south population were heavily involved in agriculture, making it hard to take part in youth groups. It can be said that the success of the ONB and indoctrination was hindered by regional and demographic differences. We can also question whether it did create a loyal generation of fascist, or whether people just joined for the benefits and activities. In the 2nd world war the soldiers consisted of fascists and anti fascists, so itβs hard to tell
16
Q
What was the OND?
A
The Opera Nazionale Dopolavora (National Afterwork Organisation). The most successful and popular aspects of the fascist regime
17
Q
When was OND formed and who controlled it?
A
Formed in 1925 under the control of the ministry of the national economy which later transferred to PNF control in 1927
18
Q
What did the OND replace?
A
It replaced local socialist workers clubs
19
Q
What as the aim of the OND?
A
It was made to boost support for the fascist regime and Mussolini by using Italian triumphs and positive Italian history. It also used sporting victories like the 1934 and 38 World Cup as well as the 32 olympics. OND helped to make fascism affect every aspect of life, making indoctrination applicable at home. The OND was not the forefront for propaganda but it was to help subtly indoctrinate the population.
20
Q
What did the OND provide?
A
People had to pay membership fees, but the state subsidised the cost.
It provided workers with a variety of social and sporting opportunities, including bars and Bullard halls, cycling groups, football teams, libraries and radios. Each OND section had a clubhouse where these activities were provided
21
Q
What kind of entertainement did the OND provide?
A
It provided plays and concerts as well as the showing of films for workers.
22
Q
What discounts did the OND provide?
A
Provided discounts on rail tickets as well as other consumer benefits
23
Q
What was the ONDs most popular aspect?
A
Subsidised holidays and excursions. It allowed workers to take their families to holidays at the beach, mountainous retreats and sporting events for practically free. This was the first example of popular mass leisure in Italy and was provided and payed for by the fascists.
24
Q
How many members did OND have by 1939
A
4 million +
25
What percentages of workers were in the OND?
80% White collar workers
| 40% Blue Collar workers
26
Was the OND directly linked to fascism?
No - none of the activities and events provided directly, ideologically linked to promote fascist belief. This questions the depth of the PNFs attempt to create a loyal nations of fascists. However many people linked the OND to Mussolini and it contributed to his popular appeal.
27
Did people join for fascism?
No many people didnβt join due to fascist ideals, but they joined due to the mass range of services it provided
28
When did the PNF introduce decrees that restricted freedom of the press?
1923 and 1925 - The PNF introduced decrees that limited the freedom of the press
By 1926 they were formalised into official laws passed by the government
29
What could prefects of the PNF do?
They could confiscate whole editions of any newspaper, journal or magazine if it deemed to be critical or go against the fascist regime. They could also suspend publication, replace editors and shut down offending newspapers completely. Like Avanti - a socialist newspaper which was shut down by the PNF
30
How were journalists controlled?
They were all incorporated into a fascist union, which controlled access to jobs and promotion within the profession. This created a form of self censorship where the journalist who signed up had to write about positive things about fascism or else they would lose their job. There were instructions by Mussolini on things that should and shouldnβt be published.
31
What were journalists told not to print.
They were told not to print anything about crime, suicides, traffic accidents as this would disturb the fascist image of Italy, a country with no social problems
32
What did Mussolini prefer, banning or controlling newspaper?
Controlling: his newspaper, Popolo d italia had only 100 000 newspapers in circulation compared to 600 000 of the Vatican newspaper. Fascist newspapers accounted for 10% of the entire newspaper sales in Italy.
33
What was the aim of propaganda for Mussolini?
To indoctrinate and mobilise the immense support for Mussolini and help transform the Italian people into true fascist. It wanted to bring the Italian nation together through a feeling of shared patriotism of Italian history.
34
What was a key ideal/focus of fascist propaganda?
The symbol of Rome: The cult of Ancient Rome was popularised by fascist propaganda and it celebrated the greatness of Ancient Rome, along with its leaders and that Italians were heirs to the greatest empire in history and that it should be proud
35
How did the fascists promote the greatness of Ancient Rome?
- Medieval buildings destroyed so that romes classical ruins could be better displayed.
- 1937 a celebration was held for caesars 2000th anniversary. 1M+ Italians visited Rome for the celebration.
36
How was Mussolini linked to Rome?
He was displayed in propaganda as the heir to Augustus and thatβs he was going to rebuild Italy as a great power from the ruins and chaos of war. This was presented throughout newspapers, radio, cinemas, poster, mass rallies and sport.
37
What role did sport play in fascist propaganda?
It played a vital role: Italy won the 34 and 38 World Cup and the world boxing championships in 33 and 35. This success was used to demonstrate the refound greatness of Italy
38
When was the ministry of the press set up?
1935, but was later reformed into the ministry of popular culture.
39
What legislation did Mussolini introduce in November 1926?
He introduced legislation that banned all other political parties and that suppressed the Italians who tried to protest against the dictatorship
40
What happened to those who tried to assassinate the king or Mussolini?
They received the death penalty
41
What was confino?
A special tribunal for the defence state where Mussolini could send political dissidents to be exiled. Those exiles were often classed as potentially dangerous anti fascists despite having any evidence that they were anti fascists.
42
What affect did confino have on its victims
- It was financially devastating
- Families faced much discrimination at home from the fascists
- employers were reluctant to hire those who returned from confino so they couldnβt get many jobs
43
What was formed in 1926 to help remove any fascist opposition, what did it do?
The political police division was formed - the leader being arturo Bocchini.
- It had roles,in infiltrating and dissolving anti fascist organisation
- spies were placed all over Italy and in foreign Italian communities
- it worked with the army spy branch in 1937 called the SIM to help organise the assassination of anti fascist exiles such as the Carlo brothers in France with the help of a French fascist group
44
What and when was the OVRA set up?
OVRA - Italian secret police set up in 1927 by Bocchini to spy on the Italian population. It had 5000 informants across Italy and were successful in hindering anti fascist organisation and groups. They infiltrated places anywhere from unis to businesses
45
Role of Bocchini in Fascists Terror?.
Played a major role in suppression of opposition:
- had files on 130 000 Italians
- His special tribunals prosecuted 13 500 cases and dealt out 28 000 years of jail time
- 10 000 Italians sent to confino
- Socialist leaders fled country, mainly to Paris
- 9 death sentences given up until WW2: Demonstrates the limited opposition and the success of Bocchini
46
Other stats for repression
1926-43: 21 000 people tried for trivial political crimes in which ΒΎ were acquitted
50 000 armed militia intimidated opponents by beating them up and threatened to destroy property
1922-43 there were 5000 political prisoners and 10 000 in confino to prisons on remote islands such as that in Lipari and Lampesuda
Internal migration had to be approved of
Anti fascist propaganda was seen as treason
Hostile newspapers closed
Journalist had to be registered with the government
OVRA arrested hundreds per week
1922 β 1940 : 9 executions. 1940 β 43 : 17 executions
47
When did The Cult of Il Duce reach its peak and why did it decline?
It reached its peak in 1936, after then in slowly declined. This was due to economic issues, the concern with the relationship between Mussolini and Hitler, and the inability for Mussolini to fulfil all of his grand promises he had made to the Italian people. Another key aspect was the indtroduction of antisemitic decrees in 1938
48
Why were these anti semitic decrees unpopular?
There had been no previous anti semitism in Italian fascism and unlike Nazizm, Italian fascism had no particular focus on race. There were only 45 000 Jews in Italy (less than 1%). Many Jews even joined the army and the fascist party. Mussolini himself had a Jewish mistress and Jewish finance minister in 1932.
49
What legislation was introduced in 1938 against Jews?
Legislation that forbade Jews from marrying pure Italians, from holding public office jobs like teaching, owning more than 50 hectares of land, running businesses with over 100 employees or employing pure Italians as servants.
50
From 1938 - 41, how many Jews left Italy?
6000
51
How were Jews treated in Italy?
They were expelled from school, Jewish businesses were closed down, foreign Jews were deported and Jewish lecturers in universities lost their jobs
52
Did anyone influence these anti Semitic decrees?
No, there is no evidence that Hitler pressurised Mussolini into introducing anti semitic decrees, however it is possible that anti Jewish policy of right wing dictatorships of the time such as Germany, Austria, Hungary and Romania influenced some ideas to some extent
53
What did Mussolini believe about anti semitism?
He believed the harsher policy towards Jews would create a more militaristic and radicalised society that would be united by their hatred for both internal and external enemies, thereby mirroring the totalitarian state of Germany. This sense of radical mentality gave them a greater sense of superiority over other nations and gave them the ability to conquer and rule other nations. Thus Italy would be better prepared for war
54
What was the reform of customs?
An ideological campaign introduced at the same time around antisemitism which forced all civil servants to wear uniform and the army to adopt the passo romano which Mussolini saw in Germany and thought made the army seem more imposing. Italians were also forbidden to shake hands . These policies mirrored anti Semitic decrees by which this greater transformation prepared Italian people for wat
55
Was the reform of customs and anti semitic policy supported by the Italian population?
No. The reform of customs was ridiculed and was seen as pointless and copied from the Germans. Many ignored this and the anti semitic policies were resented by the Italian population due to no prior history of anti semitism. The pope condemned the anti Semitic decrees as an attempt to copy German nazism.
56
What did these anti semitic policies also signify to the Italian people?
These policies were a worrying sign of Italyβs growing weakness and subordination to Germany policy.
57
What was the consequence of these anti Semitic decrees?
Mussolini lost support from conservative elites, the church, businesses, the judiciary. People began to question the direction of fascist policy as it appeared to be going down a more radical route which was dangerous
58
Until 1943, what was Italy and why was this difficult for Mussolini?
A constitutional monarchy. Fascist propaganda may have said βMussolini is always rightβ. But in reality Mussolini could not ignore the political wishes of the king if he wanted to maintain power. The dictatorship was therefore difficult, as Mussolini was all powerful ruler, but at the same time shared power with the monarch, in a somewhat complex and difficult political arrangement.
59
What did the original 1919 fascist programme want to transform Italy into but why was this a problem for Mussolini?
Into a republic, but this was a problem as anti monarch policies would block his goal of becoming PM. Therefore in the 1920 programme dropped all mention of removing the king. Instead he made a political compromise with the king as it allowed Mussolini to consolidate power as it helped gain acceptance among the army and the state administration as they were always loyal to the king.
60
As Mussoliniβs dictatorship hardened, he began to limit the kings abilities. What did he do in December 1928, March 1938 and June 1940?
The fascist grand council had been granted constitutional right to limit the kings power to nominate any future PMs of Italy and to advise the king on any future royal succession. This humiliated the king . In March 1938, the fascist parliament created the title of first marshal of the empire - the highest rank in the military. It was given to both Mussolini and the king. Previously from just the king. Then in 1940 during the war, Mussolini stripped the king of his role of supreme military commander and commandeered the army.
61
Due to the Italian constitution, the king still had the power to remove Mussolini. Why not?
Throughout the fascist dictatorship, he made little effort to depose Mussolini or minimise the erosion of constitutional democracy. The king was unwilling to challenge Mussolini as long as he kept his position. It was mainly self preservation. In 1938, when antisemitic laws were passed, the king did next to nothing. There is evidence that Mussolini was just waiting for the right time to rid the monarch and conform his dictatorship. The relationship from both ends essentially suited them both
62
Who else did Mussolini want to work with to secure his dictatorship?
The conservative elites, in particular the army, judiciary and the civil service
63
Was the legal system under Mussolini changed?
No - judges and stuff retained their independence from the part however some did join to ensure their position was kept
64
Did Mussolini take control of the army?
Despite being minister of war, he allowed the military to run on its own under mostly generals and admirals
65
Why did Mussolini allow civil servants remain in top administrative jobs and podesta to exist?
It allowed Mussolini to gain acceptance of the conservative elite as they were happy they still had positions of power within the fascist political system. However this came at the expense of full fascist control of government
66
What was the battle for land?
The goal of land reclamation aimed to clear and drain marshland, making it suitable for farming and agriculture, which ties into autarky and the battle for grain. It was also to impress the foreign population and and strengthen the peasant population. Land reclamation includes drainage, irrigation, and the setting up of new towns and farmland
67
What is battle for land also closely linked to?
Closely linked to the policy of ruralisation - trying to get people to move to the countryside. However with the USA cutting off all immigration, much of the rural population moved to Italian towns and cities in search for a better life. In the 1920s and 30s around 500 000 left the countryside. The exact opposite of what Mussolini wanted.
68
What law did Mussolini introduce in 1922, what happened to it?
Mussolini, in 1922, introduced a law that made it so large amounts of land and estates were to be broken up and distributed amongst the poorer peasants. However he quietly dropped this law out of fear of losing support from the big land owners, who were his primary political supporters
69
What health benefits did land reclamation have?
Drainage reduced malaria by 50%
70
How did the battle for land help during the depression?
It provided employment and it stimulated the economy
71
How many new towns emerged from land reclamation?
13 - including Latina, pontina and the pontine marshes. This was great for tourism and journalism as well as propaganda
72
Despite great propaganda success what were some of the failures?
- Only 58% of land was actually reclaimed, according to their targets
- Despite being meant to benefit the peasants, it didnβt benefit them at all. It mainly benefited the rich landowners. Fewer than 10 000 peasants resettled on the reclaimed land and peasant wages fell by 50%. Many peasants moved to urban areas
- The peasant population (90% of the farming population) altogether owned 13% of the land whereas the richest 0.5% held over 40 still
73
What was the battle for grain?
The aim was the to make Italy self sufficient in the growth of grain. This would make them less reliant on foreign imports and improve italys position economically, especially in a time of war. During the battle for grain, Mussolini set very ambitious targets, in hopes to free Italy from the slavery of foreign bread.
74
What did Mussolini impose on imported grains?
Tariffs were introduced onto imported grains, which were then raised in 1928 and 1929
75
What were farmers encouraged to do?
They were encouraged to grow more grain and were given many different incentives, such as subsidies to buy fertilisers and buy new modern technology.
76
What were the benefits of the battle for grain?
Grain production in central and north Italy did increase by over 50% especially in Po valley as they utilised mechanised farming techniques and used fertilisers.
This lead to a 75% decrease of imports between 1925 and 1935
77
What were the consequences of the battle for grain?
Due to heavy focus on grain production, production of other industries were neglected. Animal farming declined, meaning foreign imports of meat, eggs and other goods such as olive oil, citrus fruit and grapes for wine increased. This was a main export and Spain had now took it over. Families had to pay an extra 400 Lire in food costs. Finally despite an increased production in grain, Italy were still very reliant on foreign imports. In 1933, more than 500 million tonnes of stuff was imported
78
What was autarky
The quest for economic self sufficiency for Italy
79
Why did Mussolini want autarky
There was a general decline in Italian overseas trade due to overvalued lire and the Great Depression
The sanctions placed on italy in 1936 due to militaristic action in Africa limited their trade
And the preparation for war, which became more prominent in the late 30s
80
Was autarky a success?
No - only one aspect worked, the reduction of wheat imports, but all other exports rose.
Italy only had 20% of the iron and coal needed and it had no oil, meaning the government couldnβt produce steel and replace its ships and aircraft lost during WW2, let alone produce more for fighting
81
What benefits did autarky have?
It did allow the development of new material such as Lanital, which was made from milk and rayon. It acted as a cotton substitute as Italy had no access to cotton
82
What was done to help boost autarky?
Sectors like the steel making and chemical manufacturing was nationalised and the high commission on autarky was made in 1937 to speed autarky up.
Lira was also devalued to speed up autarky as imports became more and more expensive but this led to rising import costs, also leading to inflation and wage cuts of 10%
83
How did quality of life change under autarky.
The quality of life for workers was very low. Even Mussolini himself Said that βwe must rid our minds of the idea that what we have called the days of prosperity may returnβ
Mussolini cared less and less about everyday workers and preferred to see consumer goods get worse than stop autarky.
The people that autarky didnβt affect was the middle class secret servants that were employed by the OND or ministry of corporations
84
How was the Great Depression triggered?
Stock market crash in the USA 1929
85
How much did unemployment increase by due to the Great Depression
300k in 1928 -> 1mil in 1933
86
What did the government do to help with the depression?
- Cut wages by 12% in 1930 to help businesses survive
- Increased welfare spending from 7% in 1930 to 21% in 1940
- Property, income and share taxes introduced to help counter deficit of welfare
- Cartelisation introduced which meant big businesses take over smaller ones to reduce competition causing less business to close. Became compulsory in 1936. However public hated it as prices remained high.
- Large public work schemes introduced which created jobs and were also used for propaganda purposes. 5000km of railway electrified
87
What organisations were set up to help with the depression?
IMI - set up in 1931 to protect banks from collapse by bailing out failing firms and providing new capital for investment. Provided banks with credit and trained managers with financial supervision.
IRI - set up 1933 which meant that the government bought shares from industries and lent money to those companies which believed could be saved
Institute of foreign exchange - set up in 1934 to monopolise and regulate foreign exchange and currency trading. It helped maintain the value of the lire.
88
How well did Italy cope with the Great Depression?
These measures allowed Italy to cope fairly well compared to some of its democratic neighbours and Mussolini thought President Roosevelt copied his example when drawing his new deal
89
What was the battle for births?
Mussolini wanted to increase the population from 40 mil to 60 mil by the 1950s so that he could create a big generation of loyal fascist which would then go to war and stuff. It would also mean lower salaries for workers and people buy more stuff. It also helped develop better relationships with the church.
90
What did Italy use as an example?
Mussolini used the area of the Basiclicsta as an example for the rest of Italy
91
What did Mussolini do to incentivise the population to produce more babies?
- Every time a child was born, parts of a loan would be cancelled. After 6 children, all loans cancelled
- Men who had 6 children didnβt have to pay tax and had better job opportunities
- Awards given to women with lots of children
- Better health and provision to those with more children
- Bachelors were taxed more and blocked from entering civil service sector
- Lowered woman wages, however this encouraged businesses to hire them more.
- introduced a quota system, limiting women in the workforce to 10%, however women still made up 33% of the workforce in 1936. A decline of just 3% from 1921
92
Was the battle for births a success?
- Marriage rates essentially stayed the same and actually, birth rates decreased between 1927 and 1934
- Only 10% of women who could give birth actually did between the 30s and 40s
- Population by 1950 was only 47 million
- Mussolini claimed that the lack of reproduction cost Italy 15 army division in WW2
93
What was the battle for lira?
Mussolini thought that a sting lira reflected a strong Italy and, but Italy was in inflation and the currency wasnβt worth that much. He also feared of hyperinflation that occurred in Weimar Germany. So he demanded that the be revalued from 150 lira to 90 lira against the British pound, meaning the lira would be valued more highly against the pound. This was implemented in December 1927.
94
What did the battle for lira mean a shift away from?
The battle for lira marked a significant shift away from the free market economic policy introduced by de Stefani and the state took a much bigger role in the economy such as regulation of industrial relations, managing state finances, further development and modernisation of the economy
95
What did M do to revalue the Lire?
He introduced quota novanta by which the lira would be brought back to 92.46 Lira to the British pound. He said this was not achievable by one man, but the whole nation and that the lira must and will be defended.
96
What were the consequences for the battle for lira?
- Italian workers had to accept a wage cut of 20%, in hopes for a better life
- Imports were cheaper, which benefited the chemical, steel, rearmament and ship building industries.
- However this meant Italian businesses struggled a lot with foreign export as buyers saw the price of Italian goods nearly twice as expensive. Especially the textile industry
- Agriculture in south went into depression
- Unemployment trebled between 1926 - 1928
- Mussolini forced to devalue lira by 41% in 1936
- However the decision to restore the lira to its October 1922 levels increased Ms prestige with foreign bankers and the public and it acted more as a propaganda.
97
What was the cult of Il Duce
An image propagated through posters, cinema news reels and radio broadcasts that sought to portray Mussolini as a leader of immense ability who was leading Italy to greatness
