The end of apartheid and the creation of the 'rainbow nation' 1984-94 Flashcards
When was a new SA constitution agreed and which Act was it?
December 1993, Act 200
When was the Six Day War and where?
February 1986 in Alexandra, Johannesburg
Why were white civil servant pensions guaranteed in the new constitution?
In order to Africanise the civil service - white’s had the security to leave
What did Poqo turn into by the 90s, and what was the name of the far right white militant group of the 90s?
Azanian People’s Liberation Army, and the Afrikaner Weerstand Beweging with storming of negotiating halls to stop them and desire for white homeland
How did Botha tackle black uprisings?
State of Emergency in 1985 and 86, as well as bulldozing and burning houses in Alexandra, and 25,000 arrests 1986-7
What was the SA electoral system?
Proportional representation and party lists
Why were black councils unpopular (not in terms of race)?
To improve services, housing rent taxes had to be increased, and controlling black informal settlements was met with tensions
Example of growing black business of 80s
Taxi business
When did violence become far more popular for students?
After 1984 Vaal Triangle killing of councillors when the Cape Town tricameral parliament opened
What was the ‘third force?’
The idea that the government was threatening the ANC through secret vigilante means, shown clearest in evidence of Inkatha training
Which group of the Tripartite Alliance protected black workers when in government in 1994?
COSATU
Why did the fall in the Berlin Wall threaten apartheid?
There was no need for an anti-communist bulwark in Africa
Which laws gave blacks a larger political voice?
Community Council Act of 1977 and Black Local Authorities Act of 1982, more black local representation
Which event threatened talks in April 1993?
Whites assassinating Chris Hani
When did de Klerk unban political parties (and free Mandela) and how was this agreed?
February 1990, returning to the presidentialism of Botha as the parliament was not consulted
How many seats did the NP, Conservatives and Democrats win in 1989 in the white House of Parliament?
94, 39, 33, a big step backwards for the NP
What did COSAS support in 1984-5?
School stayaways in the townships
How did Mandela try to avoid ‘black on black’ violence and what was the result?
He made an accord with Buthelezi to stop the violence in 1991, but it was not adhered to with 45 dying in Alexandra in March
How did Total Strategy change in the 1980s?
From a more violent, yet expensive tactic in the beginning, a more diplomatic approach was taken
Which group allied with the UDF in 1983?
COSAS
Which protections under the constitution were for great importance to whites?
Property rights
What did De Klerk do on ascension to power?
Reduced power of military in terms of State Security Council and it’s joint management systems
How did Matanzima act while in power?
Gave himself unlimited power in Public Safety Act of 1977, as well as banning Methodist Church or any that opposed homelands
Who was elected Secretary General of the ANC in 1991 and what did this signify for the movement?
Cyril Ramaphosa, a trade unionist who brought UDF and COSATU closet to the ANC
How did the ANC spread it’s message to SA?
Through Radio Freedom
Why did many whites in 1989 see the end of apartheid as a good thing?
The civil violence threatened their way of life, and Mandela was pro-settlement to end violence (the alternative therefore being more crackdowns and violence)
What occurred during the Six Day War?
A night vigil for Michael Diradeng, a political activist killed by a security guard, turned violent, with many killed on both sides before the police surrounded the township
How were the provinces and homelands redistributed in 1994 and how many did the ANC win?
9 provinces in total, 7 of which ANC won
Why was Thatcher unpopular with the ANC and when did Mandela meet her?
Disagreement over sanctions, support of Buthelezi over ANC and liberation movement, they met in July 1990
Which group renounced apartheid in the late 80s, and which group surprisingly negotiated with Mandela at the same time?
Dutch Reformed Church, and Broederbond leadership
What did the ANC ask for in 1984?
To make the country ungovernable
When did the United Democratic Front begin and who led it?
1983, wives of Mandela and Sisulu as well as religious figures like Tutu and Chikane
When did Mandela become president of the ANC and why?
July 1991 elected, as Tambo was ill
How did the ANC and CP more actively try to take down homeland power in 1992?
80,000 march on Ciskei and the leader Brigadier Gqozo, though 29 died
When did De Klerk come to power, and what was he before this time?
1989, Chairman of the Transvaal provincial NP
What did de Klerk do in June 1991?
Revoked Group Areas Act and Population Registration Act
What were Buthelezi’s ideas?
Protecting regional identities, free market values, single SA nation, anti-radical protests
How did rural rebellions develop during the 80s?
They worked along similar, youth-led, paths but with some opposition killed for witchcraft
How did Winnie Mandela act towards the comtsotsis?
She supported them, saying that the necklacing could liberate them
Example of a political leader who would work within the apartheid system
Allan Hendrickse who led the Labour Party
How many stayed away in COSATU protests of 1988-89?
2.5-3 million
Why were black councils unpopular in terms of race?
Councillors were seen as sell-outs, being used by the NP in order to pass responsibility for black poverty onto blacks, also elections seen as rigged a fraudulent
Who took over from the UDF after it’s banning?
COSATU and by affiliation Mass Democratic Movement
Which ANC organization tried to work homeland leaders onside and when did this begin?
CONTRALESA in 1987
How many died in SA due to political violence 1990-94?
Around 14,000
When did Mandela and de Klerk get their Nobel Peace Prize?
1993
Number of police in 1981 and 1994?
49,000 up to nearly 140,000
What was set up in September 1993 to begin takeover of government of ANC and NP together?
Transitional Executive Committee
What percentage of votes in 1994 won by ANC, NP, Inkatha and Democratic Party?
62.6%, 20.4%, 10.5% and 1.7%
What part of the CP in the ANC did the NP fear?
The second stage of revolution, a socialist state
What did de Klerk do in June 1990?
Relaxed Group Areas Act such as in Hillbrow and lift state of emergency
What was life like under the ‘young lions of Alexandra?’
Comtsotsis ruled, creating a liberated new order while those who did not support them or their boycotts were necklaced
What did the NP attempt to get out of CODESA I?
A 75% majority needed in a future parliament, akin to power sharing
What was the political ideology of blacks in 1985?
Not black consciousness or black power, but instead a more popular mobilization to violence
When was Mandela moved from Robben Island and why?
1982, better conditions for Mandela, split the leadership and have good access to Mandela when needed
Who supported Buthelezi?
Homeland police and Inkatha vigilantes
How did CODESA I end?
With de Klerk misusing his last word chance by admonishing MK, then Mandela strode up to speak against NP support for third force
Who led the Inkatha Freedom Party and where?
Chief Buthelezi in KwaZulu and parts of Natal
Example of violence between Africans due to ethnicity
1985-86 impi attacks on Umlazi township in order for better Zulu living standards, over 100 Transkeians killed
Who invigorated the youth in 1990 and in what context was this?
Peter Mokaba, who acted in a political presence for the ANC Youth League unlike the violence of the MK
How did the UDF work against apartheid?
Freedom Charter, no armed struggle, boycotts such as tricameral parliament (13% Indian turnout)
Who was Allan Boesak?
Leader of Dutch reformed church colored branch as well as World Alliance of Reformed Churches, aid to UDF
How did Botha rule after the violence of 1985?
With the State Security Council instead of the tricameral parliament
Who came to SA in large numbers in the 80s and what did they do?
MK members carrying out attacks, 137 in 1985
How many blacks died in the new Defiance Campaign march in Uitenhage?
23
Why were the youth good political activists in the 80s?
They had nothing to lose as they had no jobs, and they had a good knowledge of the backstreets
What happened to the UDF in 1991 and what was set up by who in 1992?
UDF folded into the ANC, National Civic Organization of Moses Mayekiso set up
Which international events persuaded Ronnie Kasrils of change in ANC negotiating strategy?
Success in Eastern Europe of mass movements toppling regimes
What did the ANC do as a result of learning that the NP was training Inkatha?
Withdrawing from talks
Why did some work under the apartheid council system, and who in particular did?
A great deal of government funds and housing allocation was done through the councils, and individuals such as Sam Buti hoped to use council powers to improve black living standards
What were the NP’s hope for negotiations?
Divides among blacks on racial lines would weaken them
What did de Klerk do after ending the state of emergency which wasn’t great?
Arrest MK members (for Operation Vula) and CP (to stall their relaunch), charges withdrawn in March 1991
When was Mandela first offered freedom and why did he reject it?
January 1985, but he had to renounce the armed struggle
What was the ‘sunset clause’ of the constitution?
Those with more than 5% of the vote would appear in a Government of National Unity
Where was CODESA held and when did it begin?
World Trade Centre in Johannesburg, October 1991
What did CODESA I agree?
Single, democratic non-racial SA with Bill of Rights and separation of powers
Why was the Angola war of the late 1980s unpopular?
The large white losses, highlighted by the End Conscription Campaign
What was the ANC membership in 1991?
700,000
How did Botha reform the townships?
Relaxation of pass laws, race restrictions on labour force and bans on private ownership of plots and houses
What was set up in 1979 to tackle SWAPO of Namibia?
Koevoet or crowbar force who brutally attacked SWAPO targets and leaders
How many people watched the Mandela concert of 1990?
500 million
What was the result of the New York Accords of 1988?
Gorbachev had persuaded Cuba to move out of Angola, and there was free election there and in Namibia as a result of the Accords
What was launched by the MDM in 1989?
A new Defiance Campaign, where blacks targeted examples of petty apartheid such as white beaches of Cape Town
Who supported federalism at CODESA I?
Buthelezi/Inkatha, Democrats (against centralized power) and NP to some extent
Which 2 groups did SA join in 1994 internationally?
African Union and Southern African Development Community
Which groups were banned in 1988?
UDF from public events, and New Nation newspaper
Evidence for success of AAM internationally
1988 Mándela birthday concert in Wembley
Which slogan became popular during the height of political violence in the 80s and when?
People’s power in 1985
How were townships controlled after 1986?
Joint Management Committees of army, police and white bureaucrats
Which 2 laws did the ANC pass in 1994 when first in power?
Restitution of Land Rights Act and Truth and Reconciliation Act
How did Botha take total strategy against the ANC outside of SA?
Making friendships with other African nations as well as parcel bombs and direct raids on ANC members such as with Ruth First in Mozambique, 1981
Who formed the Alexandra Action Committee and what did it do?
Moses Mayekiso who’s group attempted to fix community problems and create a sense of unity
When did CODESA 2 begin and why did it fail?
May 1992, but failed after suspected third force action killing blacks in Boipatong
What did de Klerk see as his give and take at the beginning of talks?
He would allow CP delegates like Slovo to talk, but wanted ANC to renounce commitment to sanctions
What did de Klerk do politically as a result of CODESA I and why?
Hold a referendum for whites on future talks (69% for it) in order to stave off the threat of the Conservative Party and to diffuse white vigilante groups
Examples of strategy of UDF
With around 2m supporters, alongside COSATU 1m days lost to strikes in 1986 up to 6m in 1987, and marches such as Black Civic Organisation march for electricity in homes
Slogan and grass roots plan of UDF
People’s Organs, People’s Power with R500m in rent arrears by 1989 due to rent strikes and 1983/4 Ciskei bus boycott - no leaders to ban or arrest
Number killed in 1985 due to political activity
800
What had caused Total Strategy?
A reaction to Total Onslaught
Joint Management Centre roles
Remove activists and redress local grievances
Examples of government attack on opposition in SA
COSATU headquarters bombed in 1987 and anti-apartheid critic assassinated by Civilian Co-Operation Bureau in 1989
Examples of vigilante work supported
90% of deaths due to unrest due to these groups, such as Phakatis in Orange Free State attacking school boycotters in 1985 and 1,200 dying in 1988 in Edendale Valley due to vigilantes
2 laws of 1982 of importance to NP
Internal Security Act meaning anyone could be investigated and banned, and Inquest Act further censorship of police action
End of Mixed Marriage Act and Pass Laws
1985 and 1986
When were black trade unions legalized?
1979 under recommendations of Wiehann Report
Changes to constitution in 1984
3 Houses with new President with executive power, ability to dissolve Parliament and run African affairs
Example of Botha opening up to international presence
January 1985 Eminent Persons Group from Commonwealth visited and saw Mandela in March
2 apartheids by 1989
Grand apartheid still in place with Group Areas Act and petty apartheid still in place but with some compromise i.e. desegregated buses but not trains
Value loss of the Rand in 1985
35%
Percentage of all disposable income held by whites in 1985 and prediction of 2000
55% down to 43%
British Commonwealth Committee report on SA
1 million deaths, £35m damages as a result of foreign SA work
Reasons for failure of Total Strategy
Poor economy, dissent within government, inability to end violence
Number of troops deployed by SADF in 1986 state of emergency and number of deaths
8,000 troops admitted killing 43 by 1987
De Klerk’s call in 1989
New Course
Issues for ANC after unbanning
Many members had participated in violence so were difficult to control, and the party lacked a political structure or staff
End of PAC again
August 1993 brutal murder of American aid worker
Number of whites receiving hunger relief aid in 1991
20,000, strong ground for picking up new white nationalists
Main creation of CODESA 1
Declaration of Intent
1992 September ANC/NP decision
Record of Understanding, calls for release of political prisoners, Zulu restrictions movement and ban on traditional weapon carrying such as pangas in turn for white pension and employment rights in future
When did Mandela announce the need for National Unity (with government)?
February 1993, unpopular with many due to divides between parties
3 fears of whites with new settlement
Fear of black backlash, loss of livelihoods due to job competition and fear for loss of jobs in army/bureaucracy of apartheid, reassured by Mandela
How did the far right carry out it’s violence in the 90s?
AWB joined by Conservatives of General Viljoen and Inkatha to create Freedom Alliance
How did the Freedom Alliance end?
AWB incursion into Bophuthatswana, March 1994 with 600 members firing at random at suspected ANC members to try to reinstate Chief Mongope, failed so others pulled out - came back together for election
How do you amend the SA constitution?
2/3rd vote in Parliament
1999 election showing success of peace
Freedom Alliance and PAC only received 3 seats each
When did Mandela suspend the armed struggle?
August 1990
How many people greeted Mandela at an event in the FNB stadium of Soweto?
120,000
Why was Mandela treated more fairly after 1982 and who was able to visit him?
The minister of justice was Kobie Coetsee, a Verligte, and emissaries from the UK and US visited
What happened on Matanzima’s removal?
Sabana Dalindyebo, previously secretly buried, was reburied at a public funeral with 6,000 in attendance
Why did the ANC rise in status during the late 80s?
Recognition of sacrifice in armed struggle, liberation credentials, and Mandela ability to be above the street violence of the times
Who revived the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985?
Desmond Tutu
What act of international pressure occurred in 1985?
US banks refused to renew SA loans, currency slump, Reagan pushed for disinvestment
