Redefining resistance and challenges to National Party power 1968-83 Flashcards
What was passed in 1959 about education?
Extension of University Education Act, aiming to split rich and poor blacks and creating a ruling class for the homelands
Which international presence interested Africans in universities the most?
The radical Christianity of MLK and black power, as well as Bobby Kennedy’s SA visit of 1966 to NUSAS
Why did Biko split from NUSAS?
The organisation was filled with whites who saw blacks as unequal
When was SASO set up and where?
July 1969 in Turfloop
Which religious ideology heavily influenced black consciousness?
Liberation theology
Why was black chosen as the word to describe the consciousness movement?
It was not Bantu or non-white, it harked back to some African languages, it was not African like ANC or PAC, it gave a sense of identity
Why was the segregation of universities a flaw in the NP plan?
It gave blacks the unrestrained ability to act as they wished as their idea-building age
What was SASO first international support action?
A 1,200 person rally supporting FRELIMO in Mozambique, which was against a government ban
Which anti-homelands organisations were launched in 1972?
Black Consciousness Movement and a Black People’s Convention
Which newspaper helped spread the ideas of black consciousness in Soweto?
The World
When were the SASO 9 arrested and how did the trial go about?
March 1973, heavily covered by press as SASO itself was not banned, Biko outlined philosophy of black consciousness, protest songs were sung
How many African children were at school in 1950 and 1975?
1 million up to 3.5 million
How was the black consciousness movement in high schools threatened?
By the government, and by the tsotsis gangs which threatened those leaving school
How did the threats to black consciousness affect it’s structure?
The members often formed collectives to protect themselves
Which decision was made in 1974 to start the path towards the Soweto uprising?
The Transvaal Bantu Education Department expanded Afrikaans as the language of teaching, enforced harshly by Andries Treurnicht
How many marched on in Soweto, when, and how many died in the whole uprising?
20,000, 575 died June 16th 1976
What occurred after the first Soweto marches?
Attacking of African local government buildings, 2 officials killed, Wits University Afrikaans department attempted to be burnt
Who organized funerals for those in Soweto?
Winnie Mandela and her Black Parents Association
How many youths fled SA 1976-77?
4,000
What occurred in April 1977 to show the fractious atmosphere of the times?
When Soweto rents were increased, Urban Bantu Council buildings were burnt down in mass protests
When did Biko die?
September 1977
How was Woods able to spread the story of Biko in SA?
Through the newspaper he edited, the Daily Dispatch
How many people went to Biko’s funeral?
Over 10,000
Where was the ANC and MK based in exile and why?
Lusaka in Zambia, close to SA, cheaper to house exiled political community
Which 2 campaigns did the MK launch from Lusaka and what were the results of these?
1967 Wankie Campaign and 1968 Sipolilo Campaign, both failures resulting in Kaunda of Zambia asking the MK to take their violence elsewhere
What changes were made to the ANC in 1969?
Tambo re-elected as leader, new ‘strategy and tactics’ whereby no armed detachments but infiltration of SA groups and individuals, admitting people of all races (no 4 separate groups)
How did the ANC become more authoritarian in the 1970s?
Expulsion in 1975 of pro-Africanists, expulsion of whites trying to mobilise SACTU in late 70s
How did the British AAM work in the 60s and 70s?
Organised sporting and arts boycotts by unions and guilds, by 70s SA was quite isolated
What was passed by the UN in 1980?
Cultural and academic boycott of SA
Under what circumstances and when was SA expelled from test cricket?
UK Stop the Seventy Tour disrupted 1969-1970 tour, ban in 1970
What was signed by Commonwealth countries in 1977?
Gleneagles Agreement discouraging sports teams from working with SA
When was that SA/NZ rugby tour?
1981
What did Heath do in 1970 to change policy towards SA and how did he act after this time?
Removal of UK from UN arms embargo of SA, then ‘constructive engagement’
Why were economic boycotts not supported by many in the UK in the 70s?
Investment could help the black worker alongside good working practices, thought that economic growth would should weaknesses of apartheid
What did the World Council of Churches do in 1972 under AAM pressure?
Sell its holdings in companies that had SA interests
What was the name of the 2 segments of the National Party?
Verligte and Verkrampte
What did Vorster do with a report that recommended more colored integration?
He rejected it, siding with the verkramptes over the verligte press like Die Burger
Who did Vorster wish to replace him and how did he try and make this happen?
Connie Mulder, Minister of Information, who was allocated a R64 million slush fund for ‘propaganda projects’
How was the slush fund of Mulder wrong?
It created The Citizen to try and persuade English-speakers to support the National Party and bribes were paid into USA and UK to support regime, with some funds free to use by NP members
Who competed to replace Vorster and when?
1978, Botha and Mulder
How did the fuel crisis affect SA and how did the National Party try to combat this?
Manufacturing slowed down, SASOL was created to extract oil from coal but this a third of national requirement come the 80s
Percentage of whites as a total of the population 1960 and 1991
20% to 13%
Which party is formed in 1959 and how many seats did it have?
Progressive Party, 11 NP MPs down to 1 in 1961
Why was the United Party ineffective opposition to the NP?
It mainly supported apartheid come 1970s
When was the Progressive Federal Party formed and how many seats did it win in 1981 with who as leader?
1977, 26 seats, Slabbert as leader
Why were strikes so threatening to the NP?
Black workers made up the largest part of the key industries that fuelled the SA economy, gold and uranium
Which strike began to show the true TU in SA and how many factories supported it?
1973, 150 factories
Which strike showed the ability of TU to bridge racial divides?
1979, when those of Italian decent struck bringing together colored women and African migrant workers, Fattis and Monis factory fought against by Food and Canning Union, and the strike won out
Which group of TU was formed in 1979?
Federation of SA TU or FOSATU
By how much did the homeland budget increase by in the 1970s?
It quadrupled
Why were the increases in homeland spending not often felt by Africans?
There was a great deal of waste, such as 10 homeland capitals, and an unnecessary international airport in Ciskei
How did the KwaZulu homeland become politicised?
It’s leader, Buthelezi, was rejected by black consciousness so by the end of the 70s he became very nationalistic ethnically
Which foreign policy path was rejected by the NP in the 1970s?
The laager mentality of past years
How did SA try to win over support from other African nations?
Loans made available to Lesotho and Swaziland, military pressure on Angola, Zimbabwe worked with even with black rule
How did SA keep a strong military with the arms embargo?
Massive defense budget and by 1982 80% of weapons made in SA
What does the issues of SADCC show?
That SA controlled the majority of transport links in southern Africa and was too powerful to be ignored
Who did Black Consciousness work with and when was SASO banned?
Non-whites, seeing all as unified (so at first tolerated as seemed like separate development) and 1975
Increase in high school enrollment in 1970 to 1975
150%, increasing school pressures
Government cause of Soweto and group to support direct action
Cuts to government subsidies on maize in an economic downturn, with South Africa Students Movement increasing school-age interest in action
Example of issue of overcrowding in Soweto
Desmond Tutu had warned government that anger was at breaking point 3 weeks before uprising, with 20 living in 4 roomed houses
Why did leadership lead to Soweto?
No clear leadership, such as ANC or military presence as Tambo realised after, but some links such as Joe Gqabi of SASM
Why were shebeens targeted by those in Soweto?
These illegal drinking dens had led to many black men wasting their families money on alcohol
Minister of Justice reaction to Soweto
Jimmy Kruger blamed demonstrators, banned 18 organisations
How was Soweto different in terms of who took part?
Active role of children, more random and spontaneous as well
How was Soweto not governed after the crisis?
Committee of Ten, with residents voting for councils to run area, rejected by NP
International reaction to death of Biko
Larger than usual (14 died in similar circumstances in 1977) as well known and 700 miles journey seemed awful, UN and US protest, Cry Freedom in 1987
Example of issues between ANC and new youth
2 mutinies faced by ANC while abroad training due to lack of action in early 1970s
What did the ANC leadership do in 1978 and what was the result of this?
Vietnam trip, understood guerrilla tactics in cities rather than violence in rural areas, but also importance of being seen internationally as a government in exile from SA, a real opposition
Examples of SA power in Africa
Zambia saw 95% of it’s income, in copper exports, needing SA ports and railways, and in 1969 SA pressured Tanzania to kick out ANC
Example of Tambo international action
Meeting US multinational companies in early 1980s to persuade international opinion that ANC was not communist
Example of Tambo trying to make SA ungovernable
October 1985 giving evidence to Commons committee leading to British delegation investigating apartheid and returning with damning report supporting sanctions
Example of MK action in mid-1970s
Attack by MK on police station in Soekmekaar at a time when residents were unhappy about forced removals
Example of international action 1986
October Congress passing sanctions, overriding Reagan veto
Liberalism in politics in 1970s
7 MPs won by Progressive Party in 1974, as United Party collapse in same year, Progressive Federal Party rename with 17 seats in 1977
Who did some whites on the right support?
Andries Treurnicht and his far right agenda, start of Conservative Party voting block
Constitutional changes in 1981
President’s Council of whites, colored and Indians (no blacks due to lack of interest) to replace Senate
Number of independent Bantustans and percentage of income of Transkei from SA
4 (first Transkei in 1976) and 85%, so not independent at all
What does the facts of 1986 show about black SA workforce?
250,000 pass offenses, not enough unskilled jobs in Bantustans so many moving to cities
Example of Bantustan vague success
Bophuthatswana with 19 separate areas of land miles apart, with casino complex Sun City to create economy as gambling not allowed in white areas, but still 65% of population worked outside of homeland
Example of NP desire for stability in homelands
Mangope President for Life in his Bantustan was restored after 1988 coup
Example of small changes to please left-wing element of NP
Department of Bantu Affairs changed to Collective Development, with differentiation used instead of discrimination
Who helped form the Conservative Party?
Connie Mulder after the forced resignation from NP in 1978
Issues with SA economy in 1970s
GDP grew less than population, hurting all, inflation never less than 10%, more people migrating than immigrating, particularly with loss of white professionals
Examples of use of SA Defense Force
August 1975 entry to Angola to place UNITA in as a client government, with October Operation Susannah seeing 3,000 troops enter area, and in 1977 5% of GDP spent on SADF, with internal Soweto and war
Example of foreign reliance on SA in terms of jobs
SA employed 280,000 surplus workers in 1984 from other African nations
SA in Mozambique
FRELIMO Marxists took power, NP preferred RENAMO but signed Nkomati Accord of 1984 and agreed to stop fighting government if ANC bases closed
How did SA leave Angola?
With a loss of US support early on, pulling out occurred in 1976 but only fully in 1988 when loss to Angolan government in Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
Which agreement ended SWAPO violence in Namibia?
Resolution 435 of 1989
Example of human rights abuse by NP
Attack on Kassinga refugee camp in May 1978
Example of early AAM action
1960 March call for month-long boycott of SA goods
Example of early UN action
1962 November Resolution 1761, special committee on apartheid and economic sanctions called for
Why were UN sanctions not mandatory?
Security Council with USA, UK and France refused to support them, such as oil embargoes since 1960
Examples of arms embargo
1971 Commonwealth Conference - ban of arms sales caused UK to drop projected deal, as well as 1977 UN Resolution 418 with mandatory arms embargo post-Soweto
Who notably continued trading with SA?
Israel, who found a way around sanctions where needed
Example of US economic sanctions
1987 Chase Manhattan refused to renew short-term maturing loan of $10m
Facts about economic sanctions from 1989
10% reduction in economic growth, 50,000 potencial jobs lost
