The Downfall of the Absolute Monarchy

Question 1

When did the Assembly of Notables meet?

Answer 1

February-May 1787.

Question 2

When was the Assembly of Notables last used, and of many many people did it consist?

Answer 2

Consisted of 144 men, included 7 princes of the blood.

Last used 1626.

Question 3

Why did the Assembly not simply rubber-stamp Calonne’s reform package, as he/Louis had hoped?

Answer 3

Louis XVI chose same composition in 1787, despite Turgot and Necker’s reform attempts (neither of the two new provincial assemblies sent body).

Also all senior judges from the parlement, important ‘notables’ representing provincial estates, and 14 representatives of the church.

Turned out to be far from a docile rubber stamp, as Louis and Calonne had hoped.

When presented with Calonne’s proposals, threw up obstacles.

The clergy hostile to plans to tax the church, led by Etienne-Charles de Loménie de Brienne, the archbishop of Toulouse.

Other notables not convinced the situation was bad enough to warrant reform.

When Calonne revealed the Comte Redu was in error, it only made matters worse.

Necker responded by publishing an attack on Calonne, and the assembly accused Calonne of incompetence and trying to shift blame to others.

Question 4

What aggressive and unfair action did Calonne take which infuriated the Assembly further, and why was it unfair?

Answer 4

Calonne foolishly swept aside legitimate criticisms and published articles accusing the notables of allowing self-interest to stand in the way of change.

This was untrue. Many (including Brienne) were ready to have a fairer tax system.

They had been influenced by the enlightenment.

However, they distrusted Calonne (seeing him as an e.g. of ‘ministerial despotism’).

Question 5

How did Louis initially act when Calonne faced opposition, and why was Marie-Antoinette influential in ensuring he changed his mind?

Answer 5

Louis briefly tried to support Calonne.

In April 1787, under pressure from Marie-Antoinette, he decided Calonne had to go.

The Queen constantly sought to advance her favourites’ interests with her husband.

Her success in doing so demonstrated Louis’ dependence on her in these difficult years.

Her friendship with the duchess de Polignac, whose family were hostile to Calonne, led her to seek Calonne’s dismissal. Her support for Brienne helped ensure his advance.

Question 6

Who was Brienne?

Answer 6

Came from a noble family.

Had entered the church as a career.

Intelligent and a good administrator.

1763, became Archbishop of Toulouse.

Had been friend of Turgot and sympathetic to philosophes.

Resigned August 1788.

He then became Archbishop of Sens and a cardinal.

Took oath to the CCC.

Imprisoned for his aristocratic background and died during the terror.

Question 7

What were his proposals for reform?

Answer 7

Changes affecting the army, navy, administration of the royal domain and central government put forward.

Extended tolerance to Protestants, deregulated the grain trade, changed the corvée royale into a tax and extended the provincial assemblies.

He gave local taxpayers the right to vote for these.

Supported the spread of education, the codification of the law.

Proposed the abolition of tax-farming and the establishment of a central treasury.

Indeed, Brienne headed what became the last great reforming ministry of the Ancien Régime.

Question 8

Why did his reform efforts fail?

Answer 8

However, his plans overshadowed by a need for money.

Attempted to carry out Calonne’s land tax, with some modifications to meet earlier criticisms.

This failed.

The assembly had almost become too used to challenging the king’s representative.

The publication of accounts to convince the notables of the need for action led to more accusations of incompetence.

Question 9

What demands did the notables begin to make that led Louis to dismiss them in May 1787?

Answer 9

The notables took up the cry ‘no taxation without representation’.

They called for the ‘Estates-General’ to meet, to provide fully scrutiny of the proposals.

Louis dismissed the Assembly in May 1787.

Question 10

Who was Brienne forced to do the Assembly was dismissed?

Answer 10

Again, Brienne had to resort to a loan to keep the country afloat.

Without the assembly to endorse tax changes, Brienne turned to the parlements.

Question 11

What did he ask of the Paris Parlement, and what was its reply? Why was this hardly surprising?

Answer 11

He asked the Paris Parlement to register his proposals for a land tax and higher stamp duties.

In July, it declared that while supportive of reform in principle, it wasn’t competent to endorse such changes.

This wasn’t surprising, given a number of notables sat in this body.

Question 12

In its response, what else did the Paris Parlement claim, and why was this supported widely in France?

Answer 12

Indeed, the Paris Parlement (followed by others) asserted its rights to speak for the nation and protect citizens’ rights against despotism.

Such views, stemming from enlightenment principles, popular in country at large.

Ever since Assembly of Notables summoned, discussion of ‘power-sharing’ dominated talk among the educated in the town and country.

Therefore only natural that they should see the parlement as their champions, protecting the people from sinister royal plans.

This attitude reinforced when Brienne tried to force the registration of the tax proposals using the lit de justice.

Question 13

What was the response of the Paris Parlement when Brienne tried to force through his reforms, using a Lit de Justice?

Answer 13

The Paris Parlement refused to accept this.

In July they petitioned the King for an Estates-General.

Question 14

Who was the duc d’Orléans?

Answer 14

Philippe, duc d’Orléans, was a Prince of the Blood and Louis’ cousin.

He developed liberal ideas and was an outspoken critic of the Ancien Régime in both the Assembly of Notables and the Paris Parlement.

His Paris home, the palais-royal, became a centre for revolutionary speeches.

He joined the national assembly after being elected to the Estates-General as a 2nd estate deputy.

He voted for Louis’ death in 1793.

He changed his name to Philippe Egalité.

His son (Louis-Philippe, the future king) defected to the Austrians.

He was arrested and guillotined afterwards.

Question 15

How had he defied the king?

Answer 15

The duc d’Orléans had already spoken out vociferously against Louis in the Assembly of Notables.

Question 16

How did Louis XVI emulate his grandfather in responding to the defiance of the Parlement?

Answer 16

Such hostility provoked Louis to react as his grandfather had done: in August, the Paris Parlement were banished to Troyes (to get it away from the baying crowds).

Question 17

How did the provincial parlements support the defiance of the Paris Parlement?

Answer 17

However, the provincial parlement unanimously declared their refusal to register the edicts.

Question 18

Why did Louis face increasing civil disorder?

Answer 18

Louis’ action increased the rioting on the streets of Paris and elsewhere.

His orders simply encouraged the popular perception that royal government over-extending itself and behaving illegally.

Question 19

When Louis, facing a growing crisis, allowed the Parlement to return in September, why did this not calm the situation?

Answer 19

In November, Louis held a stormy ‘royal session’ during which his cousin, the duc d’Orléán, was so outspoken in his criticisms that Louis had him exiled by lettres de cachet.

Two other members also imprisoned for speaking out against Louis.

With royal troops surrounding the area, laws approving more loans were forced through by a lit de justice.

Question 20

What promises did Louis have to make in return for financial support?

Answer 20

Nevertheless, in return for Parlements’ approval for another vingtiéme, Louis was forced to call an Estates-General.

He promised to call this ‘by 1792’.

Question 21

How did the Paris Parlement defy the king’s legal prerogatives in May 1788?

Answer 21

In May 1788, Parlement took a further step and issued the ‘fundamental laws of the kingdom’.

In this, it claimed that laws could not be changed even by royal demand.

They stated that the consent of the Estates-General was needed for the changes Louis was proposing.

Question 22

On the advice of Lamoignan, the head of the judiciary, what did Louis plan, and why was this significant as a last-ditch attempt to protect royal absolutism?

Answer 22

The King responded by arresting yet more members.

On advice of Lamoignan, the head of the judiciary, he drew up plans to remove the parlements’ powers.

These became known as the ‘May Edicts’.

Louis’ May Edicts hit at the power of the parlements in a last attempt to reform the old institutions of the state within an absolutist framework.

Question 23

What were in the May Edicts?

Answer 23

The Edicts said…

A new plenary court of nobles, officiers and magistrates, appointed by the king, would take responsibility for the registration of laws.

This new court would have the right to remonstrate.

Parlements’ legal work would be transferred to the lower courts.

The numbers of judges in the Paris parlement would be reduced.

Question 24

What occurred when a Lit de Justice forced them through?

Answer 24

This provoked an all-night session in the Paris Parlement which was only broken up when soldiers were sent in.

They unleashed three months of chaos during which royal control broke down.

Question 25

How did the parlement respond to the May Edicts?

Answer 25

The provincial parlements flooded the royal court with remonstrances, while the Paris Parlement led cries to end the lettres de caches and imprisonment without trial.

Question 26

How did opposition beyond the parlements show itself angry at Louis’ actions?

Answer 26

Radical pamphlets attacked Brienne and Lamoignon.

Concepts such as the ‘general will’ and ‘the rule of law’ were keenly poured over.

Everywhere there were demands for an Estates-General and the Assembly of Clergy added its voice to the protest.

Question 27

How did the church begin to oppose Louis’ actions?

Answer 27

In June 1788, Brienne’s demand for an enlargened Don Gratuit from the clergy was only partially granted: they offered 25% of what was expected.

Question 28

How did Royal Authority collapse over this time? Give any relevant examples.

Answer 28

Confidence in government disappeared and taxes were unpaid.

A series of un-coordinated and sporadic uprisings broke out across the country.

Many of these were led or co-ordinated by nobles.

There was rioting and royal officials and intendants were intimidated and attacked.

In Grenoble, royal troops who arrived to restore order were pelted with stones and roof tiles in the ‘Day of Tiles’ in June.

Question 29

What act of desperation by Brienne in July 1788 demonstrated the end of Royal Absolutism, after the revolt of the nobles?

Answer 29

In July Brienne suspended payments from the royal treasury.

This meant there could be no more loans since France could not afford to pay any interest.

Louis was thus compelled to submit to demands for an Estates-General in 1789.

Question 30

What led to the fall of Brienne by August 1788?

Answer 30

The short-term loans that France had relied upon dried up the next month and in August the country was declared bankrupt.

Brienne resigned.

Question 31

Who was recalled at this point, and why?

Answer 31

Necker was recalled on 25 August, again at Marie-Antoinette’s request.

He was regarded as the only man capable of sorting out the royal finances.

Question 32

Why were the Estates-General seen by Necker as so vital to have soon?

Answer 32

Even Necker had few options left.

The May decisions concerning the parlements were rescinded.

Some temporary loans were raised, but Necker realised attempting anything more before the Estates-General would be foolish.

Question 33

What were the main issues being considered about the formation of the EG, prior to its commencement?

Answer 33

The number of deputies each estate would elect: equal representation or should 3rd Estate have more, as 80-90% of population?

Method of Debate: should each estate meet separately and reach own decisions, or as a single body?

Voting procedure: should there be a single vote per estate or voting by head? If the third estate got double representation, this would only matter if there was voting by head.

Question 34

What did the Paris Parlement announce in September 1788 about this?

Answer 34

The matter was not resolved by pronouncement by the Paris Parlement in September 1788 that the EG would follow the procedures laid down for its last meeting in 1614.

This would mean equal representation for each estate, separate meetings and one vote per estate.

All these would work against third estate.

The Parlement’s Declaration had not possibly been thought through.

It divided those who seemed to be working together in a fight for ‘fundamental rights’.

Question 35

How did this completely undercut the former support the parlements had enjoyed as defenders of the people?

Answer 35

This would mean equal representation for each estate, separate meetings and one vote per estate.

All these would work against third estate.

The Parlement’s Declaration had not possibly been thought through.

It divided those who seemed to be working together in a fight for ‘fundamental rights’.

The parlements, hailed as champions of ordinary people, became defenders of tradition.

Question 36

Who began to fill the vacuum and become seen as leaders for the third estate?

Answer 36

These leaders didn’t initially come from the Third Estate itself, but from more enlightened nobles who sought to champion their cause.

Question 37

What did the King and Necker accept at the end of December 1788, and what was strange/unsatisfactory about this?

Answer 37

End of December 1788, Necker and the King accepted the Third Estate should have double representation.

They still, however, refused to pronounce on the voting measures.

Without a change of these, representation numbers meaningless.

Question 38

Why was Mirabeu frustrated that little was being done to prepare for the EG?

Answer 38

He believed that only an alliance of the King and the Third Estate would strengthen royal authority.

Mirabeau approached the king’s minister of foreign affairs, Montmorin, with his suggestions.

However, he had offended Montmorin by his attacks on Necker, whom Montmorin admired, and Montmorin refused to see him.

Question 39

Who was Mirabeu?

Answer 39

Honoré-Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau (1749-91) a member of an old family from Provence.

His debauchery and gambling had led his father to keep him in prison under lettres de caches for 8 years as a youth.

Influenced by enlightenment ideas, wrote essays against ‘royal despotism’ and produced Le Courrier de Provence newspaper, which was closed down.

Elected as a third estate deputy, he rapidly proved a successful and popular orator.

He favoured a constitutional monarchy and from 1790 developed a closer relationship with the king, becoming his personal advisor.

In May 1790, he became the President of the National Assembly, but he died on 2 April 1791.

Question 40

How did the months before the first meeting of the EG in May 1789 saw the growing politicisation of the Third Estate.

Answer 40

The Activities of the Sociéte des Trente (Society of Thirty), set up by group of mostly noble liberal reformers and included magistrates and some clergy. Included the Bishop of Autun.

Charles Tallleyrand-Périgord, and the Marquis de Lafayette, the hero of the AWoI, there too.

Encouraged members of the third estate to fight for their rights by printing pamphlets and by holding meetings.

The Publication of Abbé Sieyés’ pamphlet ‘What is the Third Estate?’. Published January 1789, argued that the 3rd Estate was everything, it alone represented the nation. Written in simple language, the message was clear, and led to growing desire to not just have a voice in a future assembly but to act as its leaders.

The Poor economic situation: poor 1788 harvest meant that in spring of 1789, Parisian workers spending 88% of their wages on bread to keep alive. Textile production fell back by 50% and unemployment rose.

Fluctuation of grain supply sufficient to ensure radicals had a receptive (and often militant) audience.

The beginnings of the elections and the drawing up of the cahiers de doléances: following precedent, each estate invited to draw up a list of grievances (cahiers de doléances) for discussion. This concentrated minds on their problems. Somethings organisations such as the society of Thirty stepped in to draw up ‘model cahiers’ for illiterate third estate members to put their marks to, but many of the documents were genuine reflections of hardship. They also showed a degree of political awareness, which grew stronger higher up the social hierarchy.

Question 41

What were the cahiers?

Answer 41

The cahiers de doléances (ledgers of complaints) were compiled in the early months of 1789.

Around 40,000 produced.

Each of three estates submitted their own cahiers.

First two estates directly, the third indirectly.

Lists from every town, village, parish and guild consolidated by bourgeoisie lawyers and officials.

Most Cahiers couched in deferential language and few demanded radical change.

Most spoke of need for representative government.

The Third Estate cahiers were more concerned about tax and those from peasant districts had local and specific concerns.

Question 42

Who was Abbé Sieyes?

Answer 42

The Abbé Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes (1748-1836) was a clergyman but not noble.

This limited his promotion.

His Pamphlet Qu’est-ce que le tiers État? Very popular.

Elected as rep. of 3rd estate to EG.

Proposed setting up National Assembly in June.

Favoured keeping power in the hands of the bourgeoisie in preparing a new constitution.

Withdrew from politics during the terror.

Served in the Directory, played a major role in organising a coup d’état that brought Napoleon to power in 1799.

Question 43

What occurred in Paris right before the meeting of the EG?

Answer 43

The elections took place at a time of mounting economic discontent.

In April, during election of Paris deputies, there was rioting.

This caused by rumour that the wallpaper manufacturer Réveillion considering cutting wages.

His factory was attacked and, after two days of disturbances, troops had to be called in to restore order.