The Development of social sciences Flashcards
What are the social sciences?
those disciplines that use research and analysis to study human behaviour, such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology,
What are the humanities?
those disciplines that focus on the creative side of the human experience, such as art or literature
What is sociology?
The scientific study of the development, structure and functioning of the human society
What is anthropology?
the scientific study of the development of the human species and the various cultures that make up humanity
What is Psychology?
the systematic study of people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviour
What is retribution?
one of the functions of punishment. This function is one of society’s needs and/or desire for inflicting suffering on the offender that is comparable to the suffering caused by the offence. The outcome of this function is protection of moral order.
What is deterrent?
a form of strict punishment of lawbreakers that frightens others from similarly breaking the law
What are statistics?
numbers that are collected and analyzed by social scientists and others
What is personality?
an individual’s relatively unchanging personal qualities and character
What is cultural anthropology?
The study of the cultures of living people
What is culture?
beliefs and behaviours that are transmitted from generation to generation
What is kinship?
relationships among members of a social group that are based on members’ descent from common ancestors
What is cultural evolutionism?
the now largely discounted belief of early anthropologists that all societies and cultures evolve through a series of predictable stages
What is social anthropology?
the study and analysis of the social organization of living people
What are ethnographic studies?
studies of the culture and traditions of distant peoples
What are participant observations?
the anthropological method of study where a researcher lives with a cultural group for an extended period of time to obtain an insider’s understanding of the group
What is cultural diffusion?
the belief of early anthropologists, now largely discounted, that civilization developed in a single place on the earth and then spread to others, sometimes in a deteriorated form
That is physical anthropology?
the study of evolution of humankind, including the comparison of human genetic characteristics with those of apes, gorillas, and chimpanzees
What is a myth?
a true or fictional story that recounts supernatural events that are significant to members of a culture
What is a functional theory?
the idea originated by Bronislaw Malinowski that all institutions are designed and modified to meet the needs of the majority
What is a primate?
a member of the mammal groups with the most developed brains, such as a human, an ape, a gorilla, or a chimpanzee
What is psychoanalysis?
the school of psychology founded by sigmund freud in which hypnosis and a dream analysis is used to study a person’s unconscious mind
What is the conscious mind?
the term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of our minds containing memories that we can recall
What is the Id?
the term used by sigmund freud for the pleasure-seeking, often destructive, part of the unconscious mind
What is psychiatry?
the study and medical treatment of mental disorders
What is analytical psychology?
the branch of psychology founded by Carl Jung that, in opposition to psychoanalysis, regards sexuality as only one of many factors influencing human behaviour
What is behavioural psychology?
the school of psychology originating with John Watson and others that has its goal the prediction and control of human behaviour
What is the unconscious mind?
the term used by sigmund freud for the part of our minds of which we are unaware, but which freud believed is responsible for most of our behaviour
What is the superego?
the term used by Sigmund Freud for the part of the unconscious mind that encourages us to do good things. It is the part of the mind most closely linked to our sense of self
What is individual psychology?
a system of therapy originated by Alfred Adler that focuses more on people’s conscious minds than on their unconscious minds. Adler assumed that people are normally aware of the goals and values that motivate them
What is an introvert?
the term used by Carl Jung to describe an emotionally self-sufficient person who does not encourage a large number of close associations with others and who draws strength or energy from her or his inner life
What is cognitive psychology?
the branch of psychology that studies ow people perceive and deal with their environment, as well as how they learn, remember, and forget
What is free association?
the technique originated by Sigmund Freud in which a subject matches pairs of words to enable a therapist to gain entry into the subject’s unconscious mind
What is the ego?
the term used for Sigmund Freud for the part of the unconscious mind that acts as a conscience, serving as a referee between the id and the superego
What is the inferiority complex?
the term used by alfred adler for normal human feelings of inferiority that can, in extreme circumstances, lead to the inability to function normally
What is an extrovert?
the term used by Carl Jung for a person who seeks a large number of close associations with others and who draws strength or energy from these associations
What is a functional school?
the branch of sociology that studies society as a while and analyzes how the parts of society should work to achieve stability and well being for all members
What is a conflict school?
the branch of sociology, or the theory based on the work of Karl Marx, that studies how humans compete for scarce resources. Two of the key resources examined are power and control in society
What is a symbolic interactionist school?
the branch of sociology that focuses on the beliefs and actions of individuals and the meaning that individuals give to their beliefs and actions
What are social statistics?
the term originated by Auguste Comte for the study of the forces that give a society stability, such as customs, institutions and laws
What are social dynamics?
the term originated by Auguste Comte for the study of the forces that result un change within a society such as war, revolution, economic growth and catastrophe
What is equilibrium?
as used by Auguste Comte, the belief that society has a natural tendency to find a balance between forces of change and forces off stability
What is positivism?
The term originating in Auguste Comte’s work for the belief that society can only be understood by rigidly applying the scientific method of analysis
What is egotistical suicide?
the term originated by Emile Durkheim for suicide that is caused by an individual’s not sharing any of the major values or goals of society
What is altruistic suicide?
the term originated by Emile Durkheim for suicide that occurs when people knowingly enter an impossible situation situation and sacrifice their lives for another
What is anomic suicide?
the term originated by Emile Durkheim for suicide caused by an individuals being overwhelmed by sudden change in society
What is class conflict?
The concept originated by Karl Marx of struggle between powerful and powerless groups in society
What is bourgeoisie?
the term used by Karl Marx for the rich and powerful groups in society who own factories, land and machinery
What is proletariat?
the term used by Karl Marx for the poor and powerless groups in society who survive by selling their labour
What are universals?
characteristics hat can be observed in every human culture and society, such as ethics, gestures, and superstitions
What is gender socialization?
the different ways in which girls and boys are socialized, or learn to belong to society
Define and explain what the discipline of Anthropology focuses on?
Anthropology focuses on the development of the human species and human cultures throughout the world. In order to do this they use a variety of methods including: living with the cultural group for an extended period of time and observing rituals and group behaviour
What are the three schools of anthropology?
1) Cultural Anthropology: it examines and compares the culture of living things
2) Social Anthropology: focuses on the social organization of living people
3) Physical Anthropology: has links with natural sciences such as biology and genetics. It studies the evolution of human kind over the last few million years, and compares the genetic characteristics of humans with other biologically similar animals such as apes, gorillas and chimpanzees
What are the different concepts of anthropology?
1) Culture
2) Myth
3) Kinship
Explain what anthropologist study when it comes to culture?
culture to an anthropologist means andy information about behaviour that is transmitted from one person to another and that enables people to live together successfully.
Culture is intended to provide a framework to make everyone a better person. It consists of three major elements:
1) material objects that we might possess or desire (i.e. a car or a cow)
2) Attitudes that are considered acceptable (i.e. people of all races are equal)
3) Consists of behaviour that is proper (i.e. not eating with your fingers OR eating with your fingers)
Early “ethnographic studies” that is, studies of the culture and tradition of distinct peoples implied that culture is static and clearly defined. In fact culture changes over time and there are usually grey areas about human attitudes or behaviours. Ex. Drinking and driving and unmarried couples living together
Explain what anthropologist study when it comes to myth?
A second concept that is important to anthropologists is myth. Myth includes stories that explain the origin of the world and of humans. Myths also recount the lives of cultural heroes and beings with supernatural power. Myths are intended to reassure people about where they have come from and where they are going. Myths also provide reasons why people should practice the most important attitudes and behaviours of their culture. A myth does not mean that the story is false. Myths are the most powerful stories in culture. Myths are the means by which cultural values are transmitted from one generation to the next
Explain what anthropologist study when it comes to kinship?
Kinship involves the idea that members of a social group define themselves as descended from common ancestors. The most obvious kinship system is family. We identify with other family members because of common descent and assign special importance because of this. Kinship structures vary enormously.
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did Margaret Mead (1901-1978) make?
she studied the cultural anthropology. She discovered that our personalities are largely influenced by the society in which we live. She observed that adolescence was not a maturity. Samoan youths didn’t experience teenage conflicts, unlike North American youth who had to wait until their 20s to be adults
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) make?
~cultural anthropologist
~her works included studies on the role of religion in developing and shaping human personality
~Benedict developed the notion that culture was “personality was writ large”. In other words a sum of all the personality types
~Shared the belief with Mead that there is a strong link between the characteristics of culture and its peoples personality types
~Studied aboriginal peoples on the American Plains, she studied their societies
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) make?
he is considered the founder of social anthropology. His early studies help to develop the Functionalist Theory (all social institutions are designed and modified to meet the needs of most of its population). He rejected the theory of “cultural evolution” which held that cultures are built on the foundation of the culture left by its predecessors. Malinowski rejected the theory because its based on the notion that Western Cultures were superior and more advanced than older civilizations of Africa or the Pacific. he deemed the theory to be racist (e.g. Christian’s notion of one spouse was he most acceptable notion and other cultures would come to accept it also). Believed that this role of anthropology was not to judge but to explain anthropologists should not rate culture merely on the basis of similarity of differences.
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did Raymond Dart (1895-1988) make?
~ Physical anthropologist
~Found a skull in South Africa that was from a transitional stage between ape and human. Named it Australopithecus-southern ape
~By 1947 he discovered other fossil remains that supported his original claim
~His findings were disputed for more than 20 years but in 1947 he discovered more fossils to support his claim
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did The Leaky Family (Louis Leaky [1903-1972], Mary Leaky [1913-1996] -wife, Richard Leaky [1944]-son) make?
~Leaky did not support the theory that humans had their origin in Asia
~While studying at Cambridge University, Louis and Mary went to Africa where they discovered numerous fossil remains
~They were able to reconstruct civilizations as old as 100 000 BP (Before Present Time)
Famous Discoveries:
*Austalopitheous 1.5-2 million BP
*Homo Habilius 2.2 million BP
~Louis believed that we could get a better understanding of our ancestors lives by studying primates such as chimpanzees, apes, gorillas
~Louis was responsible for recruiting 3 famous female Anthropologists to help conduct studies on primates: Jane Goodall, Birute Galdikas and Diane Fossey
~Louis Leaky specifically selected women to help conduct his studies because he believed that women had more accurate powers at observation
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did Jane Goodall (1934) make?
~Began her work in the 1960s observing and recording the lives of chimpanzees
~Observations:
* discovered that like humans, chimps learned how to use tools
* observed a chimp using a stick to feed on ants
* observed they’re not strictly vegetarians
* Chimps exhibited cannibalism, they sometimes killed other chimps and ate the meat from the carcass
*most significant discovery was that chimps lived in highly developed social structures based on the concept of an alpha male
* supremacy and leadership was based on aggression and strength
What major contributions to the study of anthropology did Birute Gladikas (1945) make?
~recruited by and worked for the Leaky family
~1968 she went to Borneo, Indonesia to study wild orangutans
~observations were consistent with the work of Jane Goodall. She discovered Orangutans also lived in highly structured social groups where violence and aggression were instruments for superiority
~Orangutans also displayed acts of cannibalism
What are the characteristics that are unique to humans?
- Opposable thumbs: we can manipulate objects, make tools, write, etc.
- Speech: We communicate complex ideas, wee use language to teach, develop and share ideas
- Brain: ours is the most developed, we have a large capacity to learn, we’re organized and think in abstract form
- Movement: we can walk upright on two legs for long distances. We can carry objects and perform tasks while standing
- Long Dependency Period: Humans are very sociable, we have capacity for close and long lasting relationships and is important in our society
What is the argument put forth in the article “The Great Ape Debate”?
The argument put forth in the great ape debate is whether or not primates should have rights because they are so genetically similar to humans. Some people think it would be morally correct because they are so similar to us (98.4%) but others think that it’s pushing “good morals” to the extreme
What were the arguments for giving apes rights?
~we are all animals
~chimps are humankind’s very close relatives
~Animals share the earth and need the protection of laws for their survival
What were the arguments against giving them rights?
~the genetic differences are significant and won’t change
~extending the rights to chimps debases the rights of human
~Chimps could not understand or employ these rights
What are the schools of psychology?
1) psychoanalysis
2) Behaviourism
3) cognitive
What is psychoanalysis?
~it probes the inner most experiences of the subjects/patients (dreams, thoughts, emotions, fantasy)
~understanding the inner experiences of a subject, will help in treating patients suffering from unexplained anxiety, phobias, fears, obsessions, etc
Explain: the behavioural school of psychology
focuses their attention on behaviour that is observable and therefore can be studied more objectively than the invisible mind. Studies often use animals in their studies because they believe the principles of behaviour would remain consistent among all species
Explain: the cognitive school of psychology
cognitive school focuses on how people deal with their environment, how people learn and remember, and where memories are stored, how humans acquire and use knowledge.
What is involved in the personality theory?
~id ~Ego ~Superego ~Conscious minds ~unconscious minds ~defence mechanism ~denial ~displacement ~repression ~personal unconscious ~collective unconscious ~Law of Effect ~Inferiority Complex
What do our conscious minds contain?
contains all the memories, thoughts and ideas that we recall
What do our unconscious minds contain?
Stores memories, thoughts that we have forgotten, repressed and are unable to recall into our conscious minds (thought). Freud believed that our unconscious mind had a powerful influence on human behaviour. In oder to treat mental disorders, he believed it was necessary to unlock the unconscious mind. He used various methods to research and help probe into his patient’s unconscious mind:
- hypnosis
- free association
- inkblots
- dream interpretation
- talking therapy
What is hypnosis?
a patient would be hypnotized so that they could sort through their unconscious
what are inkblots?
When there is a splash of ink on a piece of paper and the patient is asked to tell the person what they see
What is dream interpretation?
the patient explains dreams their dreams while the psychiatrist interprets its meaning
What is talking therapy?
believed that once patients talk about their problems the symptoms went away
What are defence mechanisms?
it was explained by Sigmund Freud that these are the techniques that the human mind uses to deal with stress and anxiety. These are denial, displacement and repression
What is denial?
refusing to acknowledge a problem
What is displacement?
shifting anger and frustration to a less threatening object/person
What is repression?
removing/forgetting damaging experiences from the conscious memory
What is the personal unconscious?
the thoughts and ideas that we as individuals have repressed in our unconscious
What is the collective unconscious?
the unconscious dreams and memories that are shared by all people from the beginning of time. Jung believed that there existed some type of spiritual connections between all people.
What is the Law of Effect?
behaviours that result in a positive outcome will be repeated and those that result in a negative outcome will be avoided
What is the inferiority complex theory?
all people feel inferior at times in their lives as a result they try to compensate by seeking experiences that five them a feeling of power
Explain: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)?
~known as the founder of psychoanalysis. He developed the concept that humans mind was divided into two parts: the conscious and unconscious mind
~Freud believed that our unconscious mind had a powerful influence on human behaviour. In order to treat mental disorders, he believed it was necessary to unlock the unconscious mind.
~Frued also worked on what he called Defence Mechanism. He explained that these are techniques that human mind uses to deal with stress anxiety
~Freud’s work was enormously significant in the development of modern psychiatry
Explain: Carl Jung (1875-1961)
~analytical psychology
~Carl Jung was a follower of Freud but broke ties when he disagreed with Freud about some of his theories of the unconscious mind. Jung believed Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind was too simplistic. He developed the idea that the unconscious mind was made up of both a personal and collective aspect
~Personal unconscious and collective unconscious
~Jung theory of Personality Characteristics
Explain: Alfred Adler (1873-1937)
He worked with Freud but did not agree with Freud’s conclusion that sexuality was the key to understanding personality. Adler believed that a desire for all kinds of power, not just sexual, was what motivated people. Adler developed the system of therapy known as individual psychology which downplayed Freud’s theory of unconscious forces. Instead it assumed that people were normally aware of their goals and values that guided them. Adler created the inferiority complex theory. Adler argued that people are maladjusted, because they seek goals that are useless to them and society. Becoming well-adjusted requires higher self-esteem and more worthwhile goals (philanthropy).
Explain: Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
He conducted numerous experiments on animal learning (famous cat in a cage experiment). Thorndike discovered that animals can complete tasks more quickly the more often they repeat the tasks. They did so by avoiding techniques that they knew didn’t work from previous experiences. He developed the idea known as the law of effect. Thorndike went on to apply his law to classroom curriculum.
What are the sociological schools of thoughts?
1) conflict (Neo-Marxism)
2) Symbolic Interactionism
3) Functionalism
What is the conflict school of thought?
the brain of sociology, or the theory based on the work of Karl Marx, that studies how humans compete for scarce resources. Two key resources examined are power and control in society
*the most significant characteristics of human beings is their ability to produce goods to meet their needs and wants
What is the symbolic interactionism school of though?
the branch of sociology that focuses on the beliefs and actions of individuals and the meaning that individuals give to their beliefs and actions
*the most significant characteristics of human beings is their ability to reason abstractly and think symbolically
What is the functionalism school?
the branch of sociology that studies society as a whole and analyzes how the parts of society should work to achieve stability and well-being for all members
*best studied as an organic system, very much like the human body. Just as each organ in the human body performs a function, so each institution in society has a specific job to do.
What are the goals of sociology?
Pure: understand life in human groups
Applied: solve social problems
Clinical: bring about social change
Explain: Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
~considered the inventor of the term sociology
~recognized that societies change over time and that such changes caused difficulty as they tried to adapt
~wanted to identify two major categories for analyzing society:
A) Social Static
B) Social Dynamics
~Comte believed that society has a natural tendency to reach Equilibrium, or balance, if one institution/practice declines another will take its place to maintain equilibrium
~Comte’s most important contribution to society was the concept of positivism. He believed that the study of society should not be left to institution but to rigid scientific inquiry
~He argued that scientists and sociologists have a better understanding of society than Church authorities or politicians
Explain: Emile Durkheim (1859-1917)
~durkheim lived in a time when law breakers were severely punished for their crimes. He was the first to argue that the reform of criminals was more effective than vicious punishment
~Durkheim was best remembered for his work on suicide. He identified three primary reasons why people might kill themselves: egotistical suicide, altruistic suicide, anomic suicide
Explain: Karl Marx (1818-1883)
~Karl Marx lived during the Industrial Revolution, a time when factories were replacing small workshops. Marx tried to understand why so few became very rich while the majority remained poor
~Marx concluded that the unequal distribution of wealth in society led to struggle between rich and poor-class conflict
~Bourgeoisie: wealthy owners of the factories and means of production
~Proletariat: the poor who survived by selling their labour
~the problems of society could only be solved when wealth was equally distributed among all members of society
Explain: Max Weber (1864-1920)
~weber modified Karl Marx’s conflict approach
~Weber believed that wealth was not enough to explain power differences among special groups. He believed that religion, education, politics, and family structures were also important factors in class differences
~he believed that power came in many forms. Instead of armed revolutions, government bureaucracies should be created to provide essential social service (a people’s government)
Explain: Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)
~he focused on the concept of peoples’ freedom to make choices. In making choices we are motivated to fit into society. We will adopt the choices of a behaviour group with which we most strongly identify with depending on our place/role in society
