The contribution of quantitative and qualitative research methods

Question 1

What is meant by quantitative research methods?

Answer 1

research methods based on quantifiable (numbers) data. They are associated with the natural-science approach based on the hypothetico-deductive model.

Question 2

Name and describe six assumptions of quantitative research

Answer 2

• Realism: phenomena in the world have an existence outside people’s mind (realism), which can be
discovered by using the scientific method.
• Causality: the main aim of research is to find universal causal relationships.
• Confounds and noise: the presence of confounding and random variables (noise) are to be avoided.
• Bias: standardized measurements and instruments are used to avoid researcher biases.
• Falsification: researchers continuously evaluate the truth of their conclusions.
• Nomothetic approach: studies are in search of universal principles that exceed the confines of the study.

Question 3

The various quantitative research techniques are divided into what 3 broad orientations?

Answer 3

(1) descriptive research,
(2) relational research and
(3) experimental research.

Question 4

What is involved in descriptive research?

Answer 4

The focus in this orientation is on observation. Data are gathered in a numerical form, by collecting measurements or counting frequencies of occurrence.

Question 5

Give two reasons why the majority of descriptive studies involve the collection of a few data points per participants from a large group of participants

Answer 5

• The larger the sample, the more representative it becomes.

* Large numbers of observation yield more precise statistics.

Question 6

What does relational research involve?

Answer 6

To find out whether 2 variables are related measures of both are collected and correlated.

Question 7

Why is calculating and using statistical correlation co-efficients important?

Answer 7

Calculating and using statistical correlation coefficients is important, because people are prone to illusory correlations. (perception of a correlation between events for which no independent evidence can
be found. )

Question 8

Name a statistical technique often used in relational research

Answer 8

Factor analysis = a statistical technique calculating how many factors are needed to account for the
correlations between the variables measured and how they relate to the factors.

Question 9

When is experimental research needed? What is important to do to insure that you are measuring what you are supposed to be measuring?

Answer 9

Because correlations do not allow certainty about cause and effect relationships, therefore, experimental research is needed. . It is important to control for confounding variables to be sure that resulting changes are due to the independent variable.

Question 10

Name four weaknesses to quantitative research

Answer 10

No interest in individuals-Quantitative research is designed in such a way that each participant returns 1 or a few numbers, to be used in statistical analysis. There is a lack of interest in the person behind the participants, which is particularly concerning when it concerns real-life situations.

Quantitative imperative = a bias only to find measurable topics interesting because quantitative research methods require numerical data. Because of this, aspects of mental life that can’t be captured by numbers have been considered less important.

Emphasis on falsification= The emphasis on falsification is primarily geared towards erasing wrong theories rather than generating new ones. As a result, it is not unusual to see theories that have been discredited for some time still being rejected, just because it is easy to disprove them. Thus, progress can be very slow.

Better suited to testing general theories than finding solutions to specific problems

Question 11

Describe the six assumptions underly qualitative research

Answer 11

• Idealism: there is little to no evidence for a reality outside people’s minds. The only reality that matters is
the reality as perceived and constructed by people.
• Control: attempting to control the situation makes the setting artificial and thus, doesn’t help to make the
‘real world’ visible.
• Immersion: the researcher is immersed in the situation that is being studied, so that the meaning can be
understood. The researcher approaches the situation open-mindedly and sees what comes out.
• Ideographic approach: the conclusions of the study stay limited to the phenomenon under study.
• Induction: instead of reliance on the hypothetico-deductive model, more attentions is on inductive
reasoning and bracketing.
• Evidence-based: even though the data are typically not numbered, conclusions still need to be able to be
verified by others. Research is not intuition and opinion based.

Question 12

What is meant by bracketing?

Answer 12

Requirement in qualitative research to look at a phenomenon with an open mind and to free oneself
from preconceptions (such as hypotheses).

Question 13

What is the most frequently used technique of data collection in qualitative research?

Answer 13

The semi-structured interview. It allows a limited set of core question while still allowing the participant to lead the way.

Question 14

Name and describe a group format of the semi-structured interview

Answer 14

Focus group = technique in which a group of participants freely discusses a limited set of questions.

Question 15

What is meant by a transcription?

Answer 15

Transcription- The raw data of interviews consist of auditory or visual recording. These are transcribed in written form, so that they can easily be referred to.

Question 16

How is the data analysis conducted?

Answer 16

For the analysis the written forms are rewritten as a flow chart of core ideas, based on close readings. Statements are classified into a number of themes and clear ideas of how they are interconnected.

Question 17

What three main approaches are used in qualitative research?

Answer 17

(1) grounded theory = research method that tries to understand what is going on in a particular situation and which, on the basis of analysis and induction, tries to come to a theoretical insight grounded in the data. (what is going on here?, what is the main problem of the participants?)
(2) interpretative phenomenological analysis = research method that tries to understand how a phenomenon is experienced by the people involved (how is this perceived by the participant?, what meaning did she attach to this event?)
(3) discourse analysis - research method that aims to discover how social relations between people are determined by the language they use. Language is the only topic worth investigating, because it makes the world in which humans live. (How do participants use language to manage social interactions? Or to achieve objectives?)

Question 18

What limitations are there to grounded theory? (3)

Answer 18

• It largely assumed the existence of an objective reality that was to be discovered.
• It stressed the importance of inductive reasoning and verification.
• It did not take into account the fact that the data provided by the participants actually comprised their
perceptions and interpretations of what was happening.

Question 19

What approach did Edmund Husserl come with and what practice did this lead to?

Answer 19

Husserl came with an approach that stressed that psychology should be reflective of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. This led to interpretative phenomenological analysis.

Question 20

What strengths are associated with Qualitative research?

Answer 20

• Direct focus: the focus is on understanding a problem and working towards a solution directly, not by
trying to reach the truth via rejecting false explanations (as in quantitative research).
• Generation and elaboration: because they involve intensive investigations, they are well suited for finding
new ideas which can be taken on later by quantitative studies.
• Participants’ needs: there is much better feeling for participants’ needs, which decreases the risk of advice
that is perceived as unhelpful by them.

Question 21

What limitations are associated with qualitative research?

Answer 21

• Deciding between theories: the methods are not that good for deciding between ideas and theories, because
there is no external criterion.
• Introspection: methods are based on introspection, which (as we have seen) has its own limitations.
• Researcher’s involvement: the researcher has an impact on the interview and the analysis, which may be a
disadvantage in high-stakes situations (like personnel selection or university admission).

Question 22

Quantitative psychologists that argue against qualitative methods come with what three arguments?

Answer 22

• It throws away all the progress that has been made and throws psychology back to before it was scientific.
• It rejects the existence of an objective reality, which is why science exists.
• It doesn’t provide researchers with new information and devalues psychological research to pop psychology.

Question 23

Qualitative psychologists that argue against quantitative methods come with what three arguments?

Answer 23

• It clutches at the scientific method just for status and money, not for understanding of human functioning.
• It is misguided in its search for the objective reality.
• There is no objective reality, so quantitative methods have nothing to tell us about human functioning.

Question 24

What does this group of psychologists argue that one group must go?

Answer 24

The group of psychologists that stresses the incompatibility of the methods emphasize the different world views that underlie them. They hold the position that they are so contradictory that we should eliminate 1 of them. Attempts to reconcile the 2 are seen as attempts to regain lost ground.

Question 25

The other group views the 2 methods as complementary what is their argument for this?

Answer 25

They can be used in tandem depending on the question one wants to answer. This group focusses on what the methods deliver in terms of information, not on the contradictions in the underlying philosophies.

The group that views quantitative and qualitative research as complementary states that proponents of each approach tend to depict an exaggerated view of the other approach. They propose that the weaknesses of 1 approach are the strengths of the other.

Question 26

In addition to the claim about the strengths and weaknesses, what else does this group

Answer 26

• Quantitative research is more than a positivist search for scientific laws of behaviour.
• Qualitative research is more than a chat with participants. Data collection is as rigorous as in quantitative research.

Question 27

Why may too much respect be shown for the philosophy of science bad for morale?

Answer 27

Psychology has tried to follow the directives from philosophers of science on how to do proper science, but has been confronted with changing and conflicting advice. The evolutionary account (according to which scientific ideas follow principles of random variation and natural selection) might be more in line with the nature of scientific discovery. Just like genes, science depends on the wider culture and whether society at large finds the idea interesting and useful.

Question 28

Name four strengths in quantitative research

Answer 28

–lends itself well for statistical analyses of large datasets
–can produce precise predictions that can be tested
–Makes comparison (between groups or subjects) possible/easier.
–easier to investigate confounds and validity threats

Question 29

Quantitative: Big _, small _

Answer 29

Big N, Small T (time)

Question 30

Describe the understanding vs explaining argument

Answer 30

Quantitative approach explains, hermeneutics tries to understand

The phenomenological perspective is an extension of the qualitative approach•Phenomenology is a 20th century movement that tried to develop an interpretive methodology•Focus on intentionality, consciousness and qualia instead of behaviour

The fundamental task of psychology is not to explain human behaviour. It is to understand people’s actions and their motives. So it is not about action potentials and cognitive processes. It is about motives and intentions. Not the behaviour itself, but its meaning, should be at the centre of the research

Question 31

What does Kenneth Gergen argue?

Answer 31

Kenneth Gergen argues that psychology transforms reality instead of passively describing it. (Examples: obedience and authority, the bystanders effect). So it’s also hard to say if knowledge is cumulative. Consequence: theories should not be judged on truth but on the ability to generate new openings for action. How can we transform social life in such a way that the consequences are desirable?

Question 32

What specifically does Gergen deny?

Answer 32

These aren’t people who think that scientific psychology contains nonsense. These are movements that deny both the possibility and the necessity of striving for objectivity and truth. (different paradigm)

Question 33

What did Bruno Latour argue?

Answer 33

That social constructionism is not limited to humanities. (there are still facts) but there must be a social structure in order for people to accept them as facts. “Give me a laboratory and I will raise the world.” Pasteur, anthrax and microbes

Science and technology studies; studies how society and politics shape science and technology and vice versa

Constructionism comes with a responsibility. We can’t hide behind “revealing the truth”; as researcher you contribute to what is true (asking certain questions, nuclear bomb)

Question 34

Describe the contrasts between modernism and post-modernism

Answer 34

–Rules and methods vs no privileged methods–External reality vs socially constructed reality–Moving towards truth vs different possible stories to tell–Positivism vs relativism

Question 35

What did Alan Sokal contribute to this discussion?

Answer 35

Sokal writes in an article that physics itself shows that there is no objective reality. Writes about quantum mechanics, theory of relativity and quantum gravity. Uses quantum gravity to show that everything is relative and context dependent. It follows from physics itself that there is no absolute truth!

But it was a hoax! Sokals true intention was quite another…“Would a leading North American journal of cultural studies […] publish an article liberally salted with nonsense if (a) it sounded good and (b) it flattered the editors’ ideological preconceptions?” The answer is ‘yes’, Sokal’s parody was accepted for publication

Question 36

Why did Sokal do this?

Answer 36

“Deny that non-context-dependent assertions can be true, and you don’t just throw out quantum mechanics and molecular biology: you also throw out the nazigas chambers, the American enslavement of Africans, and the fact that today in New York it’s raining. […] [F]acts do matter, and some facts (like the first two cited here) matter a great deal.”

• Sokal shows the political consequences of a relativist view
• So this is not a purely epistemological consideration but a political one