The Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Examples of cognitive processes include:

Answer 1

Perception, thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, memory, language, and attention.

Question 2

Bottom-up and tow-down processing (respective):

Answer 2

• Sensory information that comes to us through our interaction with the environment.
• Information processing using pre-stored information in the memory.

Question 3

What are the 3 assumptions the cognitive approach makes?

Answer 3

• Humans are information processors
• Cognitive processes can be studied by scientific research methods.
• Mental representations guide behavior.

Question 4

Hooks:

Answer 4

• Mental representations (the way we process and organize info) determine how we behave.
• We process new information through a filter of past experience and understanding.
• We use mental shortcuts based on three factors: knowledge, motivation, and economy.

Question 5

Schema

Answer 5

Mental representations that are derived from sensory information.

Question 6

Scripts

Answer 6

Patterns of behavior that are learned through our interaction with our environment.

Question 7

Serial reproduction

Answer 7

Participant to participant

Question 8

Serial reproduction

Answer 8

Participant to participant

Question 9

What are the 3 processes of memory?

Answer 9

Encoding: transforming sensory information into memory.
Storage: creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated or lost
Retrieval: using the stored information in thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making

Question 10

What does teacup stand for?

Answer 10

Testable, Evidence, Application, Construct Validity, Unbiased, Predictive validity.

Question 11

Model of Memory

Answer 11

A hypothesized representation of memory, changes over time as new empirical evidence tests its validity.

Question 12

Declarative memory (memories of events and facts that can be actively recalled):

Answer 12

Episodic Memory: Contains memory of specific events in a given Tim and place.
Semantic: General facts, concepts or schemas, not linked to time and place.

Question 13

Procedural Memory

Answer 13

Knowing how, the unconscious memory of skills and associative tasks.

Question 14

What assumptions does the MSM model create?

Answer 14

• There are separate locations in the brain in which memory is stored.
• Memory processes are sequential.
• Each memory store operates in a single, uniform way.

Question 15

Describe the pathway of information in brain:

Answer 15

Modality specific sensory information enters the memory through the visual store (iconic memory) or the auditory store (echoic memory) and continues to the STM where it is either retained by maintenance rehearsal or displaced by other information, information that is retained enters the long-term memory where it is retrieved only when needed. Information that is not needed will be lost or adjusted by pre-existing schema.

Question 16

Capacities of different stores of memory:

Answer 16

• Sensory memory: Less than seconds
• STM: 6-18, (7+/-2 items)
• Unlimited Capacity, indefinite duration.

Question 17

What are the strengths of the MSM memory model?

Answer 17

• Backed by significant experimental and biological evidence.
• It has historical importance; gave psychologists a way to talk about memory.

Question 18

Limitations of the MSM

Answer 18

• Over-simplified/vague, assumes each store works independently.
• Does not explain memory distortion.
• Does not explain learning with minimal rehearsal.
• Does not go into detail on LTM retention.
• Does not explain the role of emotion in memory.

Question 19

The central executive

Answer 19

An attention control system that coordinates the operations of different stores by focusing or dividing attention between two or more stores on the automatic level (based on habits that rely on schemas) and the supervisory attention level (dealing with planning and decision making).

Question 20

The phenological loop

Answer 20

The auditory component of STM, divided into the articulatory control system, which holds information in the a verbal for, and the phenological store, which holds auditory memory pieces.

Question 21

Articulatory suppression

Answer 21

Performing two concurrent tasks that both involve the same STM store, which causes overload and decreases overall recall accuracy.

Question 22

Strengths of the Working memory model:

Answer 22

• Supported by Experimental evidence.
• Different areas of activity shown in brain scans during verbal and visual tasks.
• Brain damage case studies.
• Explains multi-tasking overload

Question 23

Limitations of the WMM:

Answer 23

• Unclear role of central executive, can’t measure separately from PH(LOOP) and visuospatial sketchpad.
• Interactions between different stores are not clear.
• Does not explain memory distort or emotion on memory.
• Does not explain LTM Component.

Question 24

How do leading questions affect the recall of events?

Answer 24

The post-event info can facilitate schema processing in a way which may decrease the accuracy of recall.

Question 25

Leading Questions

Answer 25

Either by form or by content suggest to a witness which answer is desired.

Question 26

A flashbulb Memory

Answer 26

A highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened.

Question 27

Special-mechanism hypothesis

Answer 27

Argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism that when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of details surrounding the experience.

Question 28

Strengths of the FBM theory:

Answer 28

• Biological evidence (Mcgaugh and Cahill and Sharot et Al)
• Led to findings that different memory types are processed in different brain parts.

Question 29

Limitations of FBM:

Answer 29

• Argued that it is has to do with one’s level of confidence, not accuracy.
• Problematic constructs, level of personal relevance, level of surprise, amount of overt rehearsal.
• Hard to verify the accuracy of emotions in RLS.
• Hard to measure one’s emotional state at the time of the event.

Question 30

Thinking

Answer 30

A cognitive process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret things, or create predictions.

Question 31

Decision-Making

Answer 31

the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker

Question 32

System 1

Answer 32

an automatic, intuitive, and effortless way of thinking. System 1 thinking often employs heuristics - that is, a ‘rule’ used to make decisions or form judgments

Question 33

System 2

Answer 33

a slower, conscious, and rational mode of thinking. This mode of thinking is assumed to require more effort. System 2 starts by thinking carefully about all of the possible ways we could interpret a situation and gradually eliminates possibilities based on sensory evidence until we arrive at a solution.

Question 34

Strengths of the Dual Process Model:

Answer 34

• There is biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different brain parts.
• Tests for cognitive biases have reliable results.

Question 35

Limitations of the Dual Process model:

Answer 35

• Overly Reductionist and does not clearly explain how these modes of thinking interact.
  -The definitions of System 1 and System 2 are not always clear. For example, fast processing indicates the use of System 1 rather than System 2 processes. However, just because processing is fast does not mean it is done by System 1. Experience can influence System 2 processing to go faster

Question 36

Anchoring Bias

Answer 36

The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information when making decisions.

Question 37

Prospect theory

Answer 37

Describes the way people choose between alternatives that involve risk.

Question 38

Framing effect

Answer 38

people react to choices depending on how they are presented or “framed.” People prefer certain outcomes when information is framed in positive language, but prefer less certain outcomes when the same information is framed in negative language.