The Civil War 1918 - 1921 Flashcards
When was the civil war
1918- 1921
What were the most significant causes of the civil war
World opposition to the Bolsheviks
Domestic challenges from Bolshevik enemies
The threat from the Czech legion
Give an example of world opposition to the Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks believed in world revolution and set up the Comintern, led by Zinoviev which essentially stated it would try to cause end start communist revolution all over the world.
Consequently the great powers of Europe sent armies to destroy the Bolsheviks, British, American and French armies attacked from archangel, Ukraine and vladivostok
Give examples of domestic challenges from Bolshevik enemies
- after the SR’s had won a majority in the constituent assembly, Lenin dissolved the constituent assembly and replaced it with soviet rule and political terror. The SR’s weren’t happy and fought back
- Bolsheviks were facing opposition from supporters of the old provisional government and the Mensheviks who had a significant say in the prov gov
- Bolsheviks faced opposition from supporters of the tsarists who wanted to rescue tsar Nicholas II And put him back on the throne. They were also supported by land owners who weren’t happy with the peasant land seizures
- Lenin had signed the treaty of Brest litovsk in which Russia had lost much of Russia’s best agricultural and industrial land to Germany including the Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. This angered patriotic Russians, the kadets and conservative forces on the right and caused a split in the party
Give an example of a threat from the Czech legion
The Bolsheviks faced a military threat when the Czech legion’s 40,000 soldiers who had fought on the side of the Russians during WW1 as a means of gaining independence from Austro- Hungary found themselves isolated after Russia and Germany had signed the treaty of Brest- litovsk
Who were the reds
The ‘workers’ and peasants’ red army’ was formed from Kronstadt sailors and red guards, plus workers who volunteers and soldiers from the disintegrating former imperial army
Who were the whites
There were liberals, former tsarists, nationalists and separatists, SR’s and other moderate socialists
Who were the main forces in the whites
Yudenich’s army
The Omsk government
The komuch
The southern volunteer army
Who were the greens
Peasant armies
Most were concerned with protecting their own area
The most famous of them was probably makhno who at times fought the reds, whites and Germans but became an ally of the Bolsheviks
What key events of the civil war happened in 1918 ( in order)
Jan- red army established
March- treaty of Brest litovsk, first British troops land at Murmansk
May- Czech legion rebels and captures a large section of the trans- Siberian railway, conscription into red army is introduced
June- SR government is established, murder of tsar and family
August- Americans arrive in northern and eastern Russia, British land at archangel and establish an anti Bolshevik government
November- kolchak assumes control in Omsk
December- French land at Odessa
What key events of the civil war happened in 1919 ( in order)
February- denikin assumes supreme command in the south east, red army occupies Kiev
March- Kolchak’s forces cross the Urals but are repulsed by the red army, growing discontent in French and British forces
April- French evacuate Odessa
June- denikin and southern army take Kharkov
July- denikin advances from the Caucasus and captures Tsaritsyn, loss of Kharkov and Tsaritsyn leads to criticisms of Trotsky, he resigns but his resignation is refused
September- allies evacuate archangel
October- denikin takes Orel but is forced back later in the month, yudenich reaches the outskirts of Petrograd
November- yudenich is defeated; denikin pushed back
What key events of the civil war happened in 1920 ( in order)
February- kolchak is executed by the Bolsheviks, red army invades georgia
April- denikin is succeeded by wrangel
May- polish army invaded Russia and occupies Kiev
July- tukhachevsky mounts red army counter offensive against poles
August- red army defeated by poles outside Warsaw
November- wrangel is defeated in the Crimea
What key events of the civil war happened in 1921 ( in order)
March- treaty of Riga: peace between Poland and soviet Russia
Who was admiral kolchak
He led a tsarist army in the east from November 1918
set up a right wing government in Omsk, ruling a large part of western Siberia.
Eventually he was forced to retreat through 1919 before being captured and shot by the reds in 1920
Who was general denikin
Had been kornilovs chief of staff and took over a large tsarist army in the south when korniloc was killed in April 1918.
He had the support of the Cossacks in the don area.
Having advanced northwards, his forces nearly succeeded in joining up with Kolchaks st Tsaritsyn by the summer of 1918.
In 1919 denikin got to within 200 miles of Moscow but was forced to retreat right back to the Crimea.
His forces were eventually evacuated by British and French naval vessels in 1920
Who was general yudenich
Another ex tsarist general
advanced through Estonia and reached the outskirts of Petrograd in October 1919 before being forced back
How did other nations impact the civil war (Britain, France and Japan?)
Other nations supplies anti Bolshevik forces with money and arms and in some cases sent troops.
Winston Churchill was determinedly anti Bolshevik and at his instigation British forces were sent to Murmansk.
French investors were the biggest losers when the Bolsheviks nationalised foreign businesses without compensation and the French fleet was sent to the Black Sea.
Japanese forces occupied Vladivostok, hoping to seize territory; us forces were sent to keep an eye on the Japanese.
On the whole there was little support at home for these expeditions.
How much of an effect did the foreign armies and nations have an effect on the outcome of the civil war
They had little effect and all had withdrawn by 1920
When was the polish war
1919- 1921
Who were foreign armies made up of
Mostly working class men from Britain, France and Japan
They often sympathised with the Bolsheviks and were not keen on a war against a workers republic
Explain about the polish war 1919- 1921
In 1919 there were national and religious uprisings in Central Asia and the Caucasus.
However the most serious threat came from newly independent Poland
The polish army was successful at first, invaded and reached Kiev but were driven back to Warsaw by the red army under general tukhachevsky
Te reds, however, could not sustain this advance and were driven out of Poland
Peace was made at the treaty of Riga, 1921 at which Poland made significant gains of former Russian land in the Ukraine and Belarus
What happened in the third phase of the civil war
It broke out in summer 1920
Although the whites were defeated, the red army was fully stretched against the poles and resistance to the communists was widespread
There were plenty of grievances against the communists by then, from harsh discipline in the factories, hunger in the cities and forced grain requisitions in the countryside
However, the SR’s were so weakened by this time that they couldn’t launch the coordinated effort needed to oust the communists
Tambov uprising 1921
Other peasant risings
What was the Tambov uprising
In august, peasants in a village in the Tambov region attacked a red grain requisition brigade and killed several of them.
They were joined by other villagers and by the end of the year 8000 brigade members had been killed
They had no intention of taking over government but effectively cut the whole province off from communist control for over a year
They were only crushed when a huge red army of 100,000 men moved into the province in the last part of 1921
Explain about the similar peasant risings in the third phase of the civil war
Similar peasant risings to Tambov took place all over russia
They used guerrilla warfare such as blowing up bridges, cutting telegraph lines and pulling up railway tracks to defeat all attempts by the communist government to bring them into line.
They used terror of their own, mutilating bodies of those they captured in a savage war of vengeance
Explain about the bitter strikes in Moscow in the summer of 1920
In the third phase of the civil war there was bitter strikes in Moscow in the summer of 1920
The appearance of a group called the Workers’ opposition within the Bolshevik party and of course the Kronstadt mutiny of March 1921
What is war communism
The name given to the set of drastic measures taken by Lenin and the Bolsheviks to win the civil war and stay in power
In order to ensure the red army was supplied with munitions and fed, Lenin introduced a decree of nationalisation which established strong centralised control over all areas of production and distribution in the areas under his control
Explain about war communism in industry
By 1918 industrial production was running at about 30% of 1913 levels.
The problems faced by the provisional government in 1917 - lack of raw materials, failures of the transport system, inflation- had only got worse
Management of factories by workers’ committees was not working
The flight of workers from the cities to the villages was causing a labour shortage
All industries had been put under centralised state control in December 1917 and were now run by the supreme council of state economy ( Vesenkha)
The vesenkha solution was to bring discipline to the factories. Workers were fined for lateness ect
How important the role of Trotsky in the civil war and what did he change
When Trotsky was made commissar for war in 1918, the army was on the point of disintegration.
He restored discipline and professionalism to what was now called the ‘workers’ and peasants’ red army’ and turned it into an effective fighting force.
He reorganised the army along strict hierarchical lines and brought back thousands of former tsarist officers to train and command army units. To ensure their loyalty, Trotsky held their families hostage
Soldiers’ committees end the election of officers by soldiers were ended. This didn’t go down well.
There was a reintroduction of ranks, saluting and pay differentials.
Trotsky also re-established harsh military discipline, bringing back the death penalty.
He also formed labour battalions to help at the front
What were Trotsky’s strengths
His energy, passion and organisational abilities
According to volkogonov, Trotsky was not much of a military strategist and the key military decisions were taken by others
But Trotsky never claimed to be an expert in military matters and his chief contribution was as the person in overall charge, holding small things together and making the organisation work
Why was Trotsky’s return to a traditional army resented by other leading Bolsheviks
Especially Stalin and Zinoviev
They had a different concept of a revolutionary army- one which was more like a militia and certainly not one that had tsarist officers in charge
Trotsky only managed to get his way with the support of Lenin
To placate the party and ensure loyalty of the officers, Trotsky attacked a political commissar (fanatical Bolshevik) to each army unit to watch and report on the actions of the officers
What were the weaknesses of the red army
Once the supply of urban workers ran out, the reds conscripted peasants but they were generally unwilling conscripts and would often desert at harvest time.
The peasants staged uprisings and many joined independent green armies
Rates of desertion were just as high for the reds as for the whites.
It had indiscipline and at worst this became full scale mutinies in which burzhui officers were murdered and new officers elected
What were the rates of desertion for the red army in 1918 and by 1921
One million in 1918
4 million by 1921
Why was desertion in the red army significant
When they deserted they took weapons and uniform with them so even in the later stages of the war the red army was often poorly equipped and they were short of ammunition
This is why Trotsky’s train which carried uniforms and supplies was so important
Give detail about yudenich’s army
In the north west
quite a small force
attacked the reds out of Estonia
Give detail about the Omsk government
A reactionary government
mainly rightists under nominal leadership of kolchak
controlled extensive area in Siberia
Give detail about the komuch
(The committee of the members of the constituent assembly)
Composed mainly of SR’s
based at samara on the river volga
Give detail about the southern volunteer army
Formed by generals kornilov and alexseev
based in the south on the river don
thousands of army officers joined as well as kadets and other liberals
army taken over by general denikin in 1918
What type of economy did war communism and nationalisation lead to
A command economy which was influenced by the state rather than by the laws of supply and demand
What were the main features of war communism
- All factories and businesses were nationalised in November 1920 due to shortages. Workers lost their freedom and were forced to work long hours without wages. Their reward was a small ration of food, some clothing and lodgings
- All grain had to be delivered to the state. Soldiers confiscated crops and livestock. Peasants began hiding their crops so Lenin was forced to use the Cheka
- Ban on private trade and a rationing system was introduced on food.
- Money lost all value.
What was people’s response to war communism
In areas occupied by the Bolsheviks, Trotsky used the Cheka to establish control and ensure the loyalty of the people
Within the red army, civilian commissars were attached to each unit to ensure the soldiers’ political loyalty
Hostages were taken and there were mass executions
During the summer of 1918 the reds began a period of indiscriminate murder and wholesale atrocities
Peasants didn’t give up their crops easily
What were the effects of war communism
The peasants decided it wasn’t worth growing crops for the communists to steal -> acute food shortage in 1920 and a famine in 1921
Between 7,500,000 and 10,000,000 Russians died during the civil war and very few were battle casualties -> hunger and disease especially typhus were the main culprits
A Commissariat of Supplies (Narkomprod) was made responsible for the feeding of the cities and the army
The middle peasants were antagonised and the partnership between the proletariat and peasants was upset
People fled the country
A black market flourished
The number of strikes increased -> the most serious was the strike of sales in Kronstadt
How many Russian people died during the civil war and why
Between 7,500,000 and 10,000,000 Russians died during the civil war and very few were battle casualties -> hunger and disease especially typhus were the main culprits caused by the movement of lousy troops, the absence of soap and hot water and medical supplies, malnutrition
What did the Commissariat of Supplies (Narkomprod) do
Was responsible for the feeding of the cities and the army
In 1918 the immediate method was to organise committees of poor peasants in the villages and detachments of armed workers in the towns, both of whom were to extract grain from the kulaks
The confusion of requisitioning that ensued soon antagonised a large class of middle class peasants and upset the partnership of proletariat and peasantry that Lenin was determined to create
Why did townspeople flee the country due to war communism
They fled to the country where they believed starvation was less of a problem -> reduced the number of workers left in the towns
It’s estimated in December 1920 the population of 40 capitals had fallen by 33% compared with 1917 while that for Petrograd fell by 57.5% and 44.5% for Moscow
What was the effect of the black market caused by war communism
It flourished for all types of goods which affected the total output of industry that fell while the number of strikes increased
What was the Kronstadt rising
In March 1921 further reductions in food rationing promoted 30,000 sailors at the Kronstadt naval base to rebel
They had been the Bolsheviks most loyal supporters in 1917 but by 1921 they opposed the Bolsheviks one party dictatorship and use of terror
Trotsky sent the red army to put down the uprising and 15,000 rebels were imprisoned with the ring leaders being shot
The uprising caused divisions within the Bolshevik party. The workers opposition group was set up under shlyapnikov and kollontai to protect workers rights and oppose the continuation of war communism
What was the Worker’s Opposition group?
Who was it set up by
The workers opposition group was set up under shlyapnikov and kollontai to protect workers rights and oppose the continuation of war communism
The members of this group believed Bolshevik leadership was becoming too authoritarian and was straying too far from its original mission of ‘all power to the Soviets’
What events led to the Red Terror
On 30 august 1918 Lenin was shot and seriously wounded by fanya kaplan.
She was executed three days after
On the same day as the attack on Lenin, the head of the Petrograd Cheka was murdered
These two events provoked a period of uncontrolled terror as Bolsheviks ransacked the streets looking for victims
What were the main features of the red terror
The bourgeoisie were driven from their homes, derived of food rations and forced to do degrading work
In august 1918 Lenin ordered the implementation of a ruthless mass terror against the Kulaks, priests and white guards by specially chosen men loyal to the Bolshevik regime
All suspicious people were detained in concentration camps
Former officials, landlords and priests were executed and while families wiped out because they’d once been rich
Any opposition to the Bolshevik authorities was dealt with by violence
Peasants who resisted the requisitioning of their crops or who hoarded grain were punished often by shooting
The murder of ex tsar Nicholas and his family
Why was ex tsar Nicholas and his family murdered
During the summer of 1918 units of the Czech legion fighting with the whites closed in on Ekaterinburg
As the Czechs approached, the Bolsheviks panicked and realised that if the tsar was rescued, he would become a rallying point for the whites
They took matters into their own hands and at midnight they shot they royal family and attempted to disguise their remains
Three days later Izvestia published an official announcement which stated the wide and son of Nicholas were sent to a safe place
What are the reasons for the success of the red army
- Although the whites were stronger, they were divided
- The red army was small but better trained and dedicated to the cause of the revolution. Commissars ensured unity and loyalty
- The red army leaders Lenin and Trotsky were men of considerable personality and organising skills. They were more united in their aims
- The red army used the railway system more effectively and was better able to move troops from one section of the front to another
- The reds were inspired by the idealistic promise of a fairer, socialist society and popularised slogans such as ‘peace, bread and land’
- The reds controlled Petrograd and Moscow but the whites were based on makeshift capitals - Omsk and archangel
- The intervention of British and French forces on the side of the whites allowed the red the prestige of fighting for ‘mother Russia’ against foreign, imperialist invaders
What happened to Russia after the civil war to 1924 (economic)
Economic chaos:
•Russia was in a state of economic collapse with mines flooded, machinery smashed and industries producing little.
• the index of gross industrial output fell from 100 in 1913 to 31 in 1921 while the index for large scale industrial output fell from 100 to 21 in the same period
• the railway system was at a near standstill
• towns and cities depressed and infested with vermin -> epidemics of typhus that in 1920 caused the deaths of 3 million people
• agricultural production was just over half the pre war level
• widespread famine -> thousands died of starvation and cannibalism appeared
• population fell from 170.9 million in 1913 to 130.9 by 1921
What happened to Russia after the civil war to 1924 (Kronstadt mutiny 1921)
As the effects of war communism worsened, some reached the limits of their endurance
They had once been supporters of the revolution but has grown tired of the ruthless years of war communism
They demonstrated and made a list of demands:
Free elections
Freedom of the press and of speech
How did the authorities respond to the Kronstadt mutiny
A leading party member, kalinin was sent to warn the people of Kronstadt and prevent any further embarrassment but his mission had little effect and on March 15 Trotsky sent them a menacing ultimatum
Two days later the red army launched an assault on the garrison
What was the significance of the Kronstadt mutiny
To Lenin, events at Kronstadt were a warning that people had endured war communism long enough
Lenin said Kronstadt was the ‘flash which lit up reality better than anything else’ and that it was time to compromise and recognise the failure of war communism
To avoid further rebellions like this, Lenin had to admit his errors, revise his policies and make a tactical retreat
Lenin admitted that ‘only agreement with the peasantry can save socialist revolution in Russia’
When did Lenin announce the new economic policy
At the tenth party Congress in March 1921, Lenin announced the details of a new economic policy
What were the main features of NEP
- Requisitioning of crops was to cease and peasants would now be expected to hand over a fixed proportion of their harvests as a form of tax. They would be able to sell their surplus crops for profit on the open market
- Private traders (known as Nepmen) were to be permitted to buy and sell goods for profit on the open market. The money economy was back
- Small businessmen were permitted to own and run medium sized firms and factories and to make a profit
- The state kept control of large scale heavy industries like coal and oil. It also regained control of transport and the banking system. Industry was organised into trusts that had to buy materials and pay their workers from their own budgets
Why did the reds win ( geographical factors)
They held the central area which included Petrograd and Moscow
They moved their capital to Moscow at the hub of the railway network which made it easier to transport men and munitions to the battle fronts
This area also contained the main armament factories so the Bolsheviks could carry on producing war materials. Much of the artillery, rifles and other military equipment of the old Russian army fell into Bolshevik hands
The central area was heavy populated so they could conscript large numbers to fight
Whites were scattered over large distances making commutation, moving men and weapons and coordinating attacks difficult
Why did the reds win (unity and organisation)
The Bolsheviks had a single unified command structure
Trotsky organised the red army into an effective fighting force
The whites were made up of different groups who had different aims
Why did the reds win ( leadership)
Trotsky proved himself to be a superb leader. He was brave and inspired men
Discipline was tough and the death penalty was used frequently
White leaders were second rate so many soldiers deserted
The level of indiscipline abs corruption in the white armies was extraordinary
Why did the reds win (support)
The support of the peasants was crucial as they supplied the main body of soldiers for both sides. They had little love for either side but Lenin had legitimised their right to the land so they were inclined to support the reds
Whites lost the support of nationalist groups
The Bolsheviks had a core support group of some workers and soldiers but did not enjoy widespread popular support but urban workers and peasants wanted to protect the gains of 1917 and the reds seemed to offer them their best chance of doing this
Why did the reds win ( other factors)
Foreign intervention should have worked in the whites favour and it certainly did bring them supplies and weapons but it was half hearted and ineffective. It also gave the Bolsheviks a propaganda coup because they could present themselves as the defenders of Russian soil against foreign forces
Both sides used propaganda but the whites didn’t see how valuable it was
The reds used extremely powerful images including:
The whites would take away from the peasants
Foreign invaders supporting the whites
The reds offering a wonderful new society for workers and peasants
Why did Lenin adopt war communism
Industry fell apart as workers committees proved incapable of running the factories
Acute shortages of raw materials created by the civil war.
Industrial output, particularly consumer goods, shrank in the Bolshevik held central area
Shortage of goods led to soaring price inflation and the value of the rouble collapsed
Peasants wouldn’t supply food to the cities
The rich wheat areas of the Ukraine were outside Bolshevik control
In February 1918 the bread ration in Petrograd had reached an all time low of only 50grams per person per day
Food riots in many cities
Workers started to flee from the cities
What was life like in Bolshevik cities under war communism
Less than a third of the urban diet came from state provided rations. The rest came from the black market. Bag men travelled between villages selling their produce
The urban workers eked out their rations by selling or exchanging goods to barter for food (known as cigarette lighterism)
The railway system was choked with bag men moving between cities but the Cheka raided trains to stop them travelling and raided markets where the goods were sold
Wages in 1919 were at 2% of their 1913 level
Fuel for heating was short and in the winter of 1919- 1920, 3000 wooden houses were stripped to provide fuel. Trees disappeared
Sanitary conditions were appalling and water was collected from street pumps
The middle classes were not allowed to work and sold anything they owned for bread.
Why were some party members against the nep to begin with and what changed their minds
Some party members considered the nep to be a betrayal of the principles of the October revolution
What finally persuaded the doubters was the Kronstadt revolt. They realised that splits in the party could result in them losing their power altogether
There was a genuine desire for unity and they were prepared to fall in behind Lenin as long as the nep was a temporary measure
How did the nep lead to economic recovery
By 1922 the results of the NEP were better than anyone expected
There was food in the markets and brisk trade in other goods
Shops, cafes and restaurants reopened and life began to flow back into the cities
By 1923 cereal production had increased by 23% compared with 1920
Industrial production also made a rapid recovery
From 1920 to 1923 factory output rose by almost 200%
Larger scale industries took longer to revive but the recovery was well underway by 1924
What was one of the chief agents of the economic recovery with the NEP
The appearance of private traders or Nepmen
They scoured the villages buying produce like grain, meat, eggs, vegetables to take to markets in the cities
They travelled round the workshops picking up nails, shoes, clothes and hand tools to sell in the markets and to the peasants
By 1923 Nepmen handled as much as three quarters of the retail trade
Two years after the beginning of the NEP how many private traders was there in Moscow
Walter Duranty claimed there were over 25,000
How did the peasants do well out of the NEP
After the famine there was rapid recovery in the villages
A great deal of the trade was between villages in produce and in hand crafted goods.
Peasants could also make money on the side in the cities or through Nepmen
They could farm their land without much interference from the government
The local branches of the soviets were on the whole still weak in the country side and traditional forms of organisation around the communes were much stronger
