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Microbiology Exam 2 C,D,E > The Central Dogma, (Exam II) > Flashcards

The Central Dogma, (Exam II) Flashcards

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1
Q

The Central Dogma

A

the source and order of ALL genetic information into function in organisms

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2
Q

The Central Dogma: Main Concepts:

A

*DNA is the carrier of genetic information
DNA is replicated to pass. On the information
DNA is transcribed into mRNA
*mRNA is the chemical messenger of information
MRNA is translated into protein
*proteins are the functional units of life (structure, carriers, and enzymes) that maintain it

IT IS A CYCLE

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3
Q

REPLICATION : DNA—>RNA—>PROTEIN

A

DNA - Transcription - RNA - Translation ( Ribosomes) - Protein - (DNA Polymerase)

DNA (RNA Polymerase) Transcription to RNA
RNA (Ribosomes ) Translation to Protein
Protein (DNA Polymerase) to DNA

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4
Q

Proteins: Examples

A

Muscle
Skin, hair, fingernails, claws (collagen, keratin)
Pepsin (digestive enzyme in stomach)
Insulin (hormone that controls blood sugar levels

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5
Q

Primary structure of proteins

A

The particular sequence of amino acids that is the backbone of a peptide chain or protein

Ala-Leu-Cys-Met

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6
Q

Secondary structure : Alpha Helix

A

Three dimensional arrangement of amino acids with the polypeptide chain in the corkscrew shape

Held by H-bonds between the -NH group and the -C=O

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7
Q

Secondary structure : Beta Pleated Sheet

A

Polypeptide chains are arranged side by side
Hydrogen bonds form between chains
R groups of extend above and below the sheet
Typical of fibrous proteins such as silk

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8
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

Specific overall shape of a protein due to function group interaction from each chain

Cross links between R groups of amino acids in chain
Disulfide. -S-S
Ionic. -COO————+H3N-
H-bonds. C=O <——>HO-
Hydrophobic. -CH3. H3C-

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9
Q

tertiary structure examples

A

Specific overall shape of a protein

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10
Q

Quaternary structure

A

Protein assembly with two or more chains

E.g. hemoglobin
Four polypeptide chains

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11
Q

Proteins: Globular

A

Spherical
Insulin
Hemoglobin
Enzymes
Antibodies

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12
Q

Proteins: Fibrous

A

Long, thin fibers
Hair
Wool
Skin
Nails

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13
Q

Denaturation
Disruption of secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure by

A

*Heat/organics: break apart H-bonds and disrupt hydrophobic attractions
*acids/bases: break H-bonds between polar R groups and ionic bonds
*heavy metal ions: react with S-S bonds to form solids
*Agitation: stretches chains until bonds break

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14
Q

Denaturation in daily life

A

Hard boiling an egg
Wiping the skin with alcohol swab for injection
Cooking food to destroy E. Coli
Heat used to cauterize blood vessels
Autoclave sterilizes instruments
Milk is heated to make yogurt

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15
Q

Nuclei acids are the genetic material of the cell and are composed of recurring monomeric units call

A

Nucleotides

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16
Q

The nuclei acids DNA and RNA are

A

Polymers of nucleotides

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17
Q

Penrose sugar. DNA. RNA

A

Base composition. Adenine (A). Adenine (A)
Guanine (G). Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C). Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T). Uracil (U)

Number of strands. Double Stranded. Single Stranded
Forms a Double Helix

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18
Q

Genetics Preview: Gene

A

Portion (sequence) of DNA nucleotides that are the blueprint for one protein (Trait)

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19
Q

Genetics Preview: Genome

A

Collection of genes of an organism

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20
Q

Genetics Preview: Genotype

A

Specific gene “type”

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21
Q

Genetics Preview: Phenotype

A

Observable, physical or functional traits for a genotype

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22
Q

Central Dogma Explained

A

DNA info is in the form of specific sequences of bases along the DNA strands

The DNA leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of proteins through sequences of DNA called genes

Proteins are the links between genotype and phenotype

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23
Q

What it boils down to

Each Human (how many cells)

A

40-80 trillion cells

23 chromosomes pairs
2m of DNA
3 billion DNA subunits
Approx 25,000 genes coding for proteins to perform all life functions

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24
Q

DNA Structure-

A

Nucleotides

Nitrogenous Bases
Sugar - Deozyribose

Phosphate groups

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25
Q

DNA structure: Sugar

A

Sugar: Deoxyribose
Penrose = 5 Carbon
There is no O on 2 carbon

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26
Q

DNA structure : Phosphates

A

1-3 phosphate groups will attach to 5 C
Phosphodiester Bond

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27
Q

DNA structure : Bases

A

Attach at the 1 C

Two types of bases: Purines and Pyrimidines

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28
Q

Bases: Purines have

A

Adenine and Guanine

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29
Q

Base: Pyrimidines have

A

Cytosine and Thymine

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30
Q

DNA Properties

A

Polarity
Strandedness
Antiparallelicity
Complementarity

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31
Q

DsDNA

A

Double stranded
Sugar-phosphate backbone
Polar (two different ends)
Complementary

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32
Q

DNA Polymerization

A

Nucleotides bond together by dehydration reactions

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33
Q

DNA polymerization (Polarity)

A

Result of polymerization is a single strand of DNA with two different ends

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34
Q

Strandedness

A

’s A = #’s T

Double stranded
Chargaff’s Rule

C = G

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35
Q

Bond —> Hydrogen Bonds

A

A = # T

Chargaff’s Rules —> COUNTS how many A, G, T, C, are in DNA

Property

# G = # C

Properties :

Interact —> H-Bonds
Complementary

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36
Q

Base Pairing

A

Complementary base pairing:

Chargaff’s Rule

A pairs (hydrogen bonds) with T

C pairs with G

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37
Q

Antiparallel

A

The two strands of DNA base - pair with each other:
Template strand
Coding strand

Antiparallel fashion 5’ end of left strand pairs with 3’ end of right strand, etc

5’————>3’

3’————>5’

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38
Q

Overall

A

G-C base pair in ( DNA and RNA)

A-T base pair (DNA)

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39
Q

Chromosome structure

A

Most human cells isolate their DNA
nucleus <— Eukaryotic Cells
Bacteria? Prokaryotic cells

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40
Q

Chromosome structure: Eukaryotic

A

Chromosome is linear
2 copies present = diploid
DNA double stranded helix is extremely long
EUK’s use positively charged proteins

*histones: wind the double stranded helix around to compact it

41
Q

Histones

A

Wind the double stranded helix around to compact it

42
Q

More DNA

A

Extra-nuclear DNA (5%)
Activated by complexes with nuclear DNA products
Used for replication of organelles
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Plasmids
Fungi
Protista
Prokaryotes

43
Q

Prokaryotic chromosome structure

A

Archaea + Bacteria

In cytoplasm (no nucleus)
——-nucleotides region

44
Q

Prokaryotes use

A

Histones-like proteins (HU) to wind DNA around to compact it

45
Q

Prokaryotes chromosome is

A

Circular -single copy = haploid

46
Q

DNA function

A

DNA holds the blueprints for the construction of all of the proteins made by cells

Blueprint comes in sections: Genes (Humans approx 25K)
Genes are instructions to build specific products: PROTEIN

47
Q

Replication Basics

A

One Cell separates into Two
Parent —-> Daughter Cells
DNA must be replicated faithfully for both daughter cells

48
Q

Parent dsDNA

A

Each original (old) strand is a template
Produce two new alternating complementary strands
Each daughter inherits one new strand, one old strand

Semi-conservative replication

49
Q

DNA Replication

A

Overall process
Players
Replication
Steps

50
Q

DNA replication : overall process

A

Duplicates the DNA blueprint (both strands) so that daughter cells can obtain the exact same genetic material

51
Q

DNA replication : Replication

A

Signals
Origin of Replication (Multiple)

52
Q

DNA replication : Players

A

DNA strands
DNA Topoisomerase + Gyrase
DNA Helicase
RNA Primase
DNA polymerase
DNA nucleotides (dNTP’s)

53
Q

DNA replication : Steps

A

Unwind
Unzip
Prime
Replicate
Bidirectional
No end

54
Q

Replication Errors

A

DNApol build polymers @ 1000 NTs/s
Errors 1/10 5

55
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic Acid

56
Q

Replication —-> DNA

A

Transcription RNA

57
Q

What is mRNA

A

DNA is the blueprint for how the proteins are to be made:

DNA cannot be read directly by the protein making machinery. Thus, and intermediary is needed (messenger RNA)

Decodes blueprint (transcription)

58
Q

Transcription only reads

A

Individual genes, not the entire code.

Ribosomes build proteins according to the DNA plans (genes)

RNA polymerase uses DNA blueprint and transcribes the information into a language the ribosomes can understand

59
Q

3 types of RNA + Function
All necessary to do protein synthesis

A

ribosomal RNA part of the structure of ribosome (protein-enzyme used to build protein) rRNA

Transfer RNA functions as helper to bring correct amino acids to ribosome to build new protein: tRNA

Messenger RNA product of transcription of DNA coding strand (a.k.a. Transcript) mRNA

60
Q

Structure of RNA

A

Nitrogenous Bases
Sugar (D->R)
Phosphate groups

61
Q

RNA Structure: Bases

A

Cytosine
Guanine
Adenine
Uracil (takes Thymine’s place)

62
Q

RNA structure: Sugar

A

Penrose = 5 C
Ribose
there IS an O on 2’ carbon

63
Q

Function of mRNA

A

Decoding the DNA
Converting DNA —> RNA
Transcription
RNA transcript (RNA strand decoded from DNA)

64
Q

Reading the DNA bases bases as a template to polymerize a single strand of RNA complementary to the DA template strand

A

MRNA—->Transcription for gene expression

65
Q

RNA transcription: overall process

A

Decoding the DNA blueprint so that ribosomes can read the RNA and make proteins

66
Q

RNA transcription: Players

A

DNA template strand
RNA polymerase
RNA nucleotides (rNTP’s)

67
Q

RNA Transcription: Transcription

A

Signals
Promoter: start site of transcription
Terminator: Signal for RNA
Polymerase to stop process

68
Q

RNA Transcription: Steps

A

Initiation
Elongation
Termination

69
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA) translation

A

The process where the ribosomes read the mRNA transcript and make a protein based on the transcript

Energy - dependent : GTP

70
Q

Ribosome translation of mRNA: Overall process

A

Functionalities the decoded genetic blueprint into proteins (traits)

71
Q

Ribosome translation of mRNA: Players

A

Ribosomes
Transcript mRNA
With amino acids tRNA

72
Q

Ribosome translation of mRNA: Translation

A

Signals

Start code
Stop code

73
Q

Ribosome translation of mRNA: Steps

A

Initiation
Elongation
Termination

74
Q

Translation mRNA: Method

A

MRNA is read by ribosomes

Ribosomes read mRNA nucleotides at a time (Codon)
Ribosomes build amino acids via tRNA

75
Q

Translation mRNA Code:

A

Wobble
Redundancy

76
Q

Translation mRNA: Ribosomes

A

Review: Ribosomal anatomy
Small subunit
E: Exit
P: Polymerizer
A: Acceptor

77
Q

Translation mRNA: Method : Assembly

A

MRNA
Ribosomal subunits

78
Q

Translation mRNA: Method: Add proper

A

Amino acids one at a time
Brought by tRNA
TRNA attach amino acids via anti-codon
Continues until entire gene is read

79
Q

Translation mRNA: Method : Sequences

A

Start Codon
AUG
stop Codon
UAA
UGA
UAG

80
Q

TRANSLATION mRNA

A

Initiation: large subunit & small subunit 5’
Elongation: Ribosome- mRNA———->this is the Direction of translation
Termination: Polypeptide chain 3’

81
Q

Genetic Expression

A

Constitutive: active (75%)
Facultative: Expressed as needed
Regulation
Expression regulating TXN, TLN
Induction
Repression

82
Q

Operons

A

Bacterial methods of regulation

83
Q

operons are

A

Genes + promoters simultaneously controlled
Operator elements (sequences)

84
Q

Classic Operons

A

Lactose
Tryptophan

85
Q

Lactose Operons (inducible) E. Coli

A

Promoter: blocked by repressor

Operator: constitutively expressed

3 genes expressed: transport and catabolism of Lactose

Process: constitutively active regulatory gene
Repressor protein expressed : prevents RNApol binding

86
Q

RNA control

A

RNA- induced silencing complex (RISC)
Small interfering RNA (siRNA)
Riboswitches

87
Q

What does the draft human genome sequence tell us

A

The human genome contains 3164.7 million chemical nucleotide bases (A, C, T, and G)

The average gene consists of 3000 bases
The total number of genes is estimated at 25k
Almost all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are the same in all people
The functions are unknown for over 66% of discovered genes

88
Q

Mutation

A

Any change from the original DNA nucleotide sequence

89
Q

Chromosomal Mutations

A

Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation

90
Q

What happens after DNA mutates ? Pt. 1

A

Change in mRNA sequence which does not change the a.a. Sequence of the. Protein

91
Q

Change in the mRNA sequence which does change the a.a. Sequence of the protein

A

Change from GAA to GUA can cause Glutamic acid to be substituted by Valine

MISSENSE
MUTATION

92
Q

MISSENSE

A

SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

93
Q

WHAT happens after DNA mutates ? Pt. 3

A

Change in mRNA sequence which causes a ribosome to find an early STOP signal

Nonsense mutation

94
Q

Mutation + causes: classification: Spontaneous Mutation

A

Errors in replication
Errors in repair
Recombination
Plasmids, lysogeny/latency

95
Q

Mutation + causes: classification: Artificial Mutation

A

Physical mutagens
Chemical Mutagens

96
Q

Mutation + causes: classification: Rate

A

DNA ApolIII
Proof reads
Mistakes /10 to the 5th
Yield 1/10 to the tenth

Mutagens
Increase 10 - 1000X

97
Q

Mutation + causes: classification: Evolution

A

Selection of non-deleterious mutations

98
Q

Artificial Mutagens: Physical Mutation:

A

Ionizing radiation: x-rays, y-rays- break bonds

Non-ionizing Radiation: UV - Pyrimidines dimers

99
Q

Artificial Mutagens: Chemical Mutation:

A

Nucleotide analogs: inhibit polymerases. And. Cause mismatched BP
Not-altering chemicals: cause substitutions
Frameshift mutagens: insertion or deletion by a chemical

Microbiology Exam 2 C,D,E (3 decks)

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