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A Level Edexcel Geography > The Carbon Cycle and Energy Security EQ3 > Flashcards

The Carbon Cycle and Energy Security EQ3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the ways biological carbon and water cycles are threatened by human activity?

A
  • Growing demand for food, fuels and other resources globally (grown consumer society and population growth)
  • Ocean Acidification (increased CO2 levels)
  • Climate Change
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2
Q

What the importance of terrestrial carbon stores?

A

Sequesters and stores high amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

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3
Q

What is Land conversion?

A

Any change from natural ecosystems to an alternative use, usually reduces carbon and water stores and soil health.

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4
Q

What are the three main land conversions?

A

Growing demands for food, fuel and other resources have led to land conversions including
- deforestation
- afforestation
- grassland to farming

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5
Q

What is deforestation?

A

The clearance of forest for the timber and the land they occupy. The land is mainly cultivated to proved grazing for livestock or to produce cash crops, massive increase in deforestation due to increase in consumer society.
e.g. By 2015 30% of all global forest cover had been completely cleared, 36 football fields lost per minute.

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6
Q

What are the impacts of deforestation on the water cycle?

A
  • reduce interception loss, more infiltration and surface runoff
  • increased precipitation onto the ground increases erosion increasing the volume of sediment
  • increase local ‘downwind’ aridity from loss of ecosystem input into water cycle through evapotranspiration.
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7
Q

What are the causes of deforestation?

A
  • increase of a consumers society (soy, palm oil and beef)
  • dams and reservoirs
  • opencast mining
    e.g. Indonesia has around 25% of the rainforest have been cleared or burned.
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8
Q

What are the impacts of deforestation on the carbon cycle?

A
  • reduction in storage in soil and biomass
  • reduction of CO2 intake through photosynthesis
  • increased carbon flux into the atmosphere due to combustion
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9
Q

What are the impacts of deforestation on the soil health?

A
  • increased amount of precipitation onto the ground increases the amount of soil erosion.
  • higher surface runoff, the more nutrients and carbon is carried away in water flow.
  • reduction in biomass supply
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10
Q

What is afforestation?

A

Planting trees in land that has never had forest, or been without forest for a long time. Tends to be the monoculture of commercial trees.
e.g. Chinas 4,500 km green wall designed to reduce desertification.

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11
Q

What is the impact of afforestation on carbon stores, water cycle and soil health?

A
  • increases CO2 sequestering through photosynthesis.
  • more interception loss and transpiration
  • Bind soil and increases nutrients and carbon content
    C > the monoculture of commercial tress such as Palm oil Plantation often store less carbon, more water and are disease prone
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12
Q

How does afforestation vary regionally?

A
  • more common in HICs
  • In LIC tend to be in the planting of monocultures of commercial trees (Palm oil)
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13
Q

What is grassland conversion and what are the different types?

A

The two main types of grassland are temperate and tropical grassland, these have been heavily exploited to be used for animal grazing as well as being heavily ploughed for agricultural use.
More common in temperate grassland as better agriculture properties e.g. 2% of North Americas prairies remain

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14
Q

What is the importance of natural grassland?

A
  • important carbon store and sink (terrestrial carbon store)
  • traps moisture and reduced flood risk
  • maintains cover to prevent soil erosion
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15
Q

What is the impact of grassland conversion on terrestrial carbon stores, water cycles and soil health?

A
  • Temperate grasslands have fertile chernozem soils which store relatively large amount of carbon, which would be released through ploughing
  • conversion led to soil and ecosystem degradation
  • less soil moisture held ( reduce water store)
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16
Q

What is ocean acidification?

A

The decreases in pH of the Earths oceans caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
e.g. Ocean pH has decreased from 8.3 to 8.1

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17
Q

What is the stages of ocean acidification?

A
  1. Greater concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to increased combustion of fossil fuels
  2. greater diffusion of carbon into the ocean
  3. the carbon dioxide mixes with the sea water to form a carbonic acid. This carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions to from bicarbonate ions and H+ decreasing pH
  4. fewer carbonate ions means less available for marine calcifiers to build shells and skeletons
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18
Q

How are coral reefs threaten by ocean acidification and increasing temperatures?

A
  • Fewer carbonate ion available means coral reefs are prevented from growing (use calcium carbonate to build skeleton)
  • Higher sea temperatures cause coral to reject its algea and loose its food source, eventually starving and turn white (coral bleaching)

e.g. will reach critical threshold when pH less than 7.8

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19
Q

What is the critical threshold?

A

An abrupt change ion an ecological state, small environmental changes can trigger significant ecological changes.
e.g. Ocean acidification (enhanced by warming temps, cyclones ect) increased the risk of Marien ecosystems reached a critical threshold of permanent damage.

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20
Q

What is ecosystem resilience?

A

The level of disturbance that an ecosystem can cope while keeping their original state.

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21
Q

How is the the health of the world forests being threatened?

A
  • deforestation
  • poleward shoot of climatic belts
  • increasing drought
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22
Q

What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?

A

The intensification of the natural greenhouse effect by human activities, primarily through focal fuel combustion and deforestation. It is the cause of global warming.

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23
Q

What are the role of forests in climate regulation?

A
  • absorb and store rainfall
  • add to atmosphere humidity through transpiration
    e.g. deforestation decreases rainfall locally, which in turns further dries out rainforest and causes it to die back further
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24
Q

How is the Amazon an example of changing climatic conditions?

A

Acts as a global and regional regulator pumping 20 billion tonnes of water into atmosphere, these humidity lowers atmospheric pressure allowing moisture to reach across the continent. Since 1990, cycle of extreme drought and flooding has degraded the forest, this is enhanced by deforestation. this means
- decline in carbon store as less carbon sequestered through photosynthesis (enhancing greenhouse effect)
- play a diminished role in hydrological cycle

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25
Q

What are the importance of forests?

A
  • sequestering carbon form the atmosphere
  • storing carbon
  • moisture transfers through evapotranspiration
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26
Q

Why are forests important for human wellbeing?

A

They are fundamental for human welling and survival (1.6 billion people depend on them). They are essential through the ‘services’
- supporting functions (nutrients cycling, soil formation and primary production)
-provisions of goods 9food, fresh water, wood, fibre and fuel)
- regulation of earths systems (climate, floods and water purification)
- cultural value (aesthetic, educational, recreational) (tourism and indigenous peoples)

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27
Q

Example of why forest are essential for human wellbeing?

A
  • 1.1% of global economic income
  • 13.2 million ‘formal jobs and 41 million ‘informal jobs’
  • tourism and reliance of indigenous tribes
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28
Q

What is the Kuznet Curve?

A

The environmental Kuznets curve suggests that economic development initially leads to a deterioration in the environment, but after a certain level of economic growth, a society begins to realise the benefits of resource conservation and protection.

29
Q

What factors affect the timings of the attitudinal changes in the Kuznet Curve?

A
  • wealth of countries
  • rising education in terms of how important the environment is for human wellbeing
  • amount of aid given to poorer counties
  • political systems and enforcement of environmental laws
  • participation of locals
  • TNC power
30
Q

What are examples of countries following the Kunznet curve?

A

Uk:
- forest cover dropped from 80% to 10% by the end of the 19th century
- forest cover increased by 25% between 1870 to 1947
- 50% between 1948 and 1995
- by 2015 13% of the uk was forested

31
Q

Why is there hope for future fro a decline in environmental degradation?

A
  • As countries become richer it come with a realisation of the benefits of conservation and protects (Kuznet Curve)
  • 1990 to 2015 rates of deforestation slowed by more then 50%
  • 13% of forested now conserved
  • protective legislation been combined with greater involvement of local communities in education and planning making it sustainable in the long term.
32
Q

What is sustainable management?

A

the environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable use of ecosystems for present and future generations.

33
Q

How has rising global temperature affected hydrological cycles?

A

Rising temperature is increasing both evapotranspiration rates and the volume of water vapour held int he atmosphere (warmer air can hold more water). This implicates
- precipitation patterns
- river regimes
- water stores (cryosphere and drainage basin stores)

34
Q

What role does the Artic play in the global climate?

A
  • the sea ice regulate evaporation and precipitation
  • it acts as an early warning systems, (barometer) of the environmental impact resulting from fossil fuel climate forcing.
  • albedo effect
35
Q

Why is the artic acting a barometer?

A

The artic stores far more carbon as any other region (net sink), but it also is the most vulnerable to global warming with local temperatures rising twice as fast as global average. This allows it to shows the the environmental impact from fossil fuel climate forcing.

36
Q

How has rising local temperatures affected the artic?

A
  • in the short term an increased CO2 uptakes, but further sea loss
  • increases in phytoplankton and terrestrial plants as growing season longer
  • melting of permafrost resulting ij a net outward flux of carbon
  • loss of albedo affect
37
Q

What are the effects of global warming on the carbon cycle?

A
  • Methane released for destabilisation of wetlands and sea floor
  • Carbon and methane releases from thawing permafrost
  • CO2 from increased forests fires
38
Q

What has been the positives from global warming?

A
  • open up previously ice bound wilderness areas to tropism and exploitation of natural resources (Artic oil)
39
Q

Why are we seeing a loss of artic albedo affect?

A
  • less summer sea ice
  • replacement of lighter tundra with darker forests as they advance northward due to better climatic conditions
  • black carbon (soot) pollution adding to heat absorption
40
Q

What are the two IPCC projection own future climate change?

A

Strong mitigation > Agreed as COP21 2015, resulting in only a 2.3 degree rise in global temperatures
Business as usual > no mitigation, emissions continue to rise as global temperature predicted to rise by 5.6 degrees (artic 15 degrees) resulting in huge impacts

41
Q

How is the oceans health being threatened?

A
  • bleaching
  • acidification
  • rising sea levels
  • loss of sea ice
    These are all having an impact the distribution, abundance, breeding cycles and migration of marine plants and animals.
42
Q

How is a decline in ocean health, affecting the developing world?

A

Threats are mainly focused in developing regions, as they depend on marine resources as a
- food source
- Income from tourism and fishing (coral reefs in Maldives attract 1 million tourists annually)
- coastal protection
e.g. fishing supports 500 million people, 90% of whom lives in developing countries

43
Q

Why are developing nations the less arable to cope with changes?

A

Poorer less diverse countries with rising population are often less Abel to deal with changes to ocean health as
- little economic power meaning they are less able to import needs
- have the technology of innovation to improve situations
Paradoxically they are often the least responsible for CO2 emissions

44
Q

How will declining ocean health have global effects?

A
  • Fish is an important part of the global economy and trade
  • Fish part of many cultural and necessity in diets (fish provides 16% of annual protein consumption for 3 billion people)
  • only countries with large industrialised (UK and Japan) will be able to follow shifts in abundance
45
Q

What are the implications on human wellbeing for the degradation of the water and carbon cycles?

A
  • Forest loss
  • increased temperature changes precipitation patterns, river regimes and water stores
  • open health (food source, tourism and coastal protection)
46
Q

Why is there uncertainty of the risk of global warming?

A
  • natural factors (role of carbon sinks)
  • human factors (economic growth, population and energy sources)
  • feedback mechanisms (carbon releases from peatlands and permafrost, tipping points (forest die back and alteration in thermohaline circulation)
47
Q

How are natural factors creating uncertainty?

A

This is whether carbons sinks will be permanently, increase in strength, saturate or disappear.
Terrestrial sinks > modelled to increase until 2050, when saturation is reached as will act as sources (thawing of permafrost, growing forests, tropical rainforest already at peak carbon capacity)
Oceanic sinks > increased store due to higher phytoplankton growth but overall reduction as sink as decreased CO2 solubility due to increase in temp.

48
Q

How are human factors creating uncertainty?

A
  • economic growth (Kuznet curve suggesting a growth in economy will results in a positive relationship with CO2 emissions)
  • population growth (will it continue to rise)
  • energy sources (future advances in technology and innovation of more renewable sources)
49
Q

How are feedback mechanisms creating uncertainty?

A

Changes to the climate have multiple causes and feedback mechanisms, that either enhance or work against the original change.
Forest dieback > the preventing of regrowth reduces carbon sink
Alteration to thermohaline circulation > melting of ice sheet releases salty water into ocean making it lighter and less salty blocking and slowing conveyer belt
Are these processes irreversible beyond a turning point

50
Q

What are the two different causes of action to deal with global warming?

A
  • adaptation
  • mitigation
51
Q

What is climate change adaptation?

A

This includes any action taken to adjust to the changing climatic conditions. There are two types hard (technofixes) and soft (legislation and lands zoning)

52
Q

What are the different adaptation strategies?

A
  • water conservation and management
  • resilient agriculture systems
  • land use planning
  • flood-risk management
  • solar radiation management
53
Q

What is water conservation and management?

A

This involves the conservation of water sources (smart irrigation, grey water and reducing consumption) and managing demand (using taxing and education)

54
Q

What the pros and cons to water conservation and management?

A

Benefits
- fewer resource use and less groundwater abstraction
- operates on a long term bases by creating attitudinal changes
Costs
- conservation will never be able to meet the increasing demands
- needs effective promotion and enforcement by governments

55
Q

What is resilient agriculture systems and pros and cons?

A

This involves the conservation of water, through reduction in use for irrigation.
Benefits
- GM crops that resist climatic changes
- low tech measurement and education may increase soil health and increase CO2 sequestering and water storages (reduced ploughing)
- may increase food security
Costs
- rely on expensive technology so may be unattainable for developing nations
- high energy cost in indoor farming
- GM is debatable

56
Q

What is land-use planning and pros and cons?

A

This involves having building restrictions in areas with high risk of experiencing the impacts of climate change (flooding)
Benefits
- enforcing strict surface runoff controls
- reduces vulnerability
Costs
- public aversion in area with high economic potential
- unfeasible in high densely populated areas (Bangladesh)
- needs strong governance

57
Q

What is flood-risk management and pros and cons?

A

This involves minimising flood risk through flood defences, afforestation ect
Benefits
- simply changes can instantly reduce flood risk
- reduces deforestation and increase afforestation
Costs
- debatable over source of funding
- maintenance needed for hard engineering

58
Q

What is solar radiation management and pros and cons?

A

This is the use of orbiting satellites, that reflect some of the inward radiation back into space, reducing the earths absorption.
Benefits
- could cool the earth within months
- has the potential to be relatively cheap
Costs
- untried and untested (unintended consequences)
- Would not decrease GG concentrations meaning many impact could still be experienced

59
Q

What is climate mitigation?

A

This involves the rebalancing of the carbon cycle, by reducing or preventing GHG emissions.

60
Q

What are the the main ways of climate mitigation?

A
  • carbon taxation
  • renewable switching
  • energy efficiency
  • afforestation
  • carbon capture and storage
61
Q

What is carbon taxation pros and cons?

A

It sets a minimum price companies have to pay to emit carbon dioxide.
Benefits
- creates an incentive to use more renewable forms of energy
- decrease demand due to higher costs
Costs
- It was unpopular with both industry and environmental groups due to the debatable effects of emissions.
e.g. Uk lower road tax for low carbon emitting cars was scrapped in 2015

62
Q

What is renewable switching and pros and cons?

A

This is the switching from fossils fuel to more renewable forms of energy such as nuclear and solar. This is dictated by energy producers as well as governments.
Benefits
- reduces CO2 emissions
Costs
- renewable can only supply intermittent electricity making it unlikely for a complete switch.
- unaffordable and unachievable in most countries

63
Q

What is energy efficiency pros and cons?

A

These are schemes that encourage and educate the population on energy-saving improvements to homes (isolation and smart meters).
Benefits
- small scale and easy implemented
- reduces energy bills
Cons
- can be more expensive
e.g. Energy suppliers much comply with the energy company obligations scheme to deliver energy-efficient measures to households.

64
Q

What is afforestation pros and cons?

A

This is the planting of trees in areas with no previous forestry.
Benefits
- this will increased carbons sequestering
- increase biodiversity
Costs
- normally monoculture trees
- costly
e.g. The Big Tree Plant campaign which encouraged communities to plant 1 million trees (most in urban areas)

65
Q

What are the possible futures of GHG concentrations?

A

Proposed by the IPCC
1. Business as usual (emissions rising at current rate, temperature likely to exceed 4 degrees)
2. Some mitigation (emissions rise till 2080, temperature rise will exceed 2 degrees)
3. strong mitigation (emissions will stabilise at hand todays levels by 2080, temperature more then likely not to exceed 2 degrees, Artic summer ice gone)
4. Aggressive mitigation (emission halved by 2080, reduced the risk of ‘tipping points’ and irreversible changes.

66
Q

Why is mitigation hard to achieve?

A

For effective changes to take place, it requires not only high action at national level but also effective international agreements and a high level of global action. This is often problematic due to
- varying priories of different governments.
- The action are quite expensive so unachievable for developing nations

67
Q

What is the Kyoto protocol?

A

the first major international effort to encourage both long and short term climate change mitigation. Agreed to cut GHG emissions by 5% by 2012.

68
Q

What were the success and failures of the Kyoto protocol?

A

Success
- started a global approach, beginning of COP
- by 2012 emissions wer 22.6% lower than 1990 levels
Failures
- only industrialised countries asked to sign not developing nations (top emitters USA and China did not sign)
- emission reduction could have been due to other factors (Global shift of industry0

69
Q

What is the Paris agreements?

A

The most recent climate agreement proposed in 2016, aims to keep the rise in global temperatures to less than 2 degrees above pre-industrial level.
- 140 nations signed
- One of the biggest emitter USA withdrew in 2017

A Level Edexcel Geography (29 decks)

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