The Birth of British Australia - 1788-1829

Question 1

Why Had the British Chosen to Establish a Penal Colony at Botany Bay?

Answer 1

The American War of Independence ended transportation to America, creating a need for a new penal colony.

Britain saw Australia as unclaimed land despite the presence of Aboriginal people.

Joseph Banks, a botanist on Cook’s expedition, recommended Botany Bay as suitable for settlement.

James Matra suggested Australia could provide flax for sail-making.

Britain wanted to prevent French territorial claims in the region.

Norfolk Island’s pine trees and flax were valuable for shipbuilding.

Overcrowded prisons in Britain and a reluctance to reform penal laws made transportation a preferred solution.

Question 2

Who Were the First British Settlers?

Answer 2

The First Fleet carried around 1,420 people, including 775 convicts and 14 convict-born children.

Of the 732 convicts who landed:

543 were men
189 were women
22 were children
Most convicts were sentenced for petty theft, with few political prisoners among them.

The youngest convict was John Hudson (aged 9), sentenced for theft.

The oldest convict was Dorothy Handland (aged 82), sentenced for housebreaking.

The convicts were mainly English but included Scots, Americans, Germans, Norwegians, and Jews.

Over 600 marines, seamen, officers, and their families accompanied the convicts.

The marines refused to perform duties beyond their military roles, limiting their contribution to the settlement.

Question 3

Why Did the First Settlement Move from Botany Bay to Sydney Cove?

Answer 3

Botany Bay was unsuitable due to a lack of fresh water and poor soil for farming.

The settlers relocated to Port Jackson, establishing the colony at Sydney Cove.

Early struggles included:

Livestock loss
Lack of ploughs and farm animals
Poor soil for agriculture
Insufficient construction materials
The colony survived by relying on rations, fishing, and trade with Aboriginal people.

Question 4

What Were Governor Phillip’s Main Challenges?

Answer 4

Phillip had to manage food supplies, maintain order, and ensure housing and infrastructure were built.

He aimed to establish good relations with Aboriginal people and create a self-sufficient economy.

Britain expected the colony to be self-sufficient within four years, estimating the cost at £70,000.

Land grants were used to encourage farming:

Convicts who completed their sentences received land.
Officers were given land to incentivize them to stay.
Farming was initially unsuccessful as many convicts lacked agricultural skills.

By Phillip’s departure:

1,000 acres were publicly cultivated.
516 acres were privately cultivated.
Phillip maintained order by controlling food rationing and purchasing extra supplies in 1788.

Question 5

How Did the Colony Manage to Survive?

Answer 5

Thorough Preparation – Phillip delayed departure to gather proper supplies, keeping the voyage death rate at 3%.

A Second Settlement on Norfolk Island – In 1790, 183 convicts, 28 children, and 81 marines were sent to Norfolk Island, where mutton birds provided food (though hunted to extinction by 1830).

Strict Food Rationing – In April 1790, Phillip introduced equal rations for all, angering the marines but preventing riots.

Moving to More Fertile Land – In 1791, James Ruse successfully farmed wheat and crops in Parramatta (renamed Rose Hill).

Question 6

Why Was the Colony on the Brink of Collapse Before the Second Fleet?

Answer 6

The supply ship Sirius wrecked at Norfolk Island, and the relief ship Guardian sank before reaching Australia.

By early 1790, only Supply remained, leaving no means to fetch resources.

The colony faced severe shortages of food and supplies.

Question 7

How Did the Second Fleet Change the Colony’s Fortunes?

Answer 7

The Lady Juliana arrived on 3 June 1790, bringing:

222 female convicts
Letters from Britain
Some provisions
Unlike the First Fleet, the Second Fleet was privately operated by Camden, Calvert & King, leading to horrific conditions.

Poor treatment of convicts resulted in:

25% dying en route
150 more dying soon after arrival due to starvation, scurvy, poor sanitation, and disease.

Question 8

Why was Joseph Banks’ prediction of an easy settlement and quick financial reward incorrect (1777–92)?

Answer 8

Challenges Faced by the Early Colony:

Harsh Environment: The Australian climate and soil conditions were not suited to traditional British agriculture.

Lack of Skilled Labor: The convicts lacked farming experience, leading to poor crop yields.

Supply Shortages: The First Fleet did not bring enough provisions, and resupply from Britain was infrequent and unreliable.

Isolation: For over two years after their arrival, the colony had no communication with Britain.

French Competition: The unexpected arrival of two French ships shortly after the First Fleet raised concerns about territorial claims.

Question 9

How did Governor Arthur Phillip ensure the survival of the colony in its early years?

Answer 9

Phillip’s Leadership and Key Decisions:

Efficient Rationing: Managed limited food supplies to prevent total starvation.

Diplomacy with Indigenous Australians: Attempted to establish peaceful relations, though tensions remained.

Strategic Resupply: Dispatched the Alacrity (Third Fleet) to India to buy rice, ensuring the colony’s survival.

Second Fleet Impact: Despite the high death toll, it brought much-needed livestock and supplies.

Norfolk Island Settlement: Established an outpost to improve food security, with over 1,000 people living there by 1792.

Retirement in 1792: Returned to England having stabilized the colony against immense odds.

Question 10

What was the significance of the Second Fleet’s arrival?

Answer 10

Human Tragedy but Colonial Survival:

The Second Fleet had the highest mortality rate of any convict voyage—many convicts arrived sick or dying.

Despite this, the fleet carried vital supplies, which significantly improved the colony’s survival prospects.

The supply ship Justinian played a crucial role in replenishing stores.

Public outrage in Britain led to a Royal Commission investigation, but no prosecutions followed.

Question 11

Why were Irish convicts seen as a threat by colonial authorities?

Answer 11

Concerns Over Political Rebellion and Religion:

Irish prisoners formed the largest single group within the colony by 1791.

Many were political dissidents from the Irish independence movement.

Anti-Catholic sentiment among English authorities led to deep mistrust of Irish convicts.

1804 Irish Rebellion: An attempted uprising against Governor King was swiftly suppressed by the New South Wales Corps.

Despite fears, most Irish convicts were transported for common crimes like theft rather than political reasons.

Question 12

How did penal transportation unexpectedly help reform convicts?

Answer 12

Opportunities and Hardships:

Many convicts thrived in Australia, free from the extreme poverty of Georgian England.

Some attempted escapes, believing they could walk to China—most perished in the wilderness.

Escaping by sea was rare but possible, with some becoming beachcombers in isolated coastal areas.

Over time, convicts who served their sentences became free settlers and contributed to the colony’s growth.

Question 13

Why was Macquarie a crucial figure in New South Wales’ development?

Answer 13

Key Achievements:

Economic Stabilization:

Introduced sterling silver coins in 1812, replacing the chaotic barter system.

Increased transportation of convicts after 1815 provided much-needed labor.

Infrastructure and Urban Planning:

Oversaw large-scale public works projects to improve roads, buildings, and town planning.

Encouraged agricultural expansion beyond the Blue Mountains.

Moral and Social Reforms:

Advocated for the rehabilitation of convicts, offering land grants and opportunities.

Pushed for more respectable social norms, discouraging excessive drinking and cohabitation without marriage.

Removal of the New South Wales Corps:

Replaced the corrupt military regime that had dominated Sydney since the Rum Rebellion (1808).

Limited the power of the Exclusives (free settlers and former Corps officers) and supported Emancipists (freed convicts).

Question 14

What was the significance of the New South Wales Corps?

Answer 14

Control Over the Colony:

Formed in 1789 to replace the marines as the colony’s military force.

Officers were given convict labor and monopolized the import of alcohol.

Their dominance led to a corrupt economy where rum functioned as currency.

Question 15

What was the Rum Rebellion (1808)?

Answer 15

The Overthrow of Governor Bligh:

Governor Bligh, famous for the Mutiny on the Bounty, attempted to break the Corps’ hold on trade.

The Corps mutinied and removed Bligh from office, running the colony for over a year.

London responded by sending Governor Macquarie and a new regiment to reassert control.

Question 16

How were convicts disciplined, and how did they integrate into the colony?

Answer 16

Worked nine hours a day, six days a week—could earn extra wages (often in rum).

Harsh punishments included flogging (100 lashes) and execution for serious crimes.

Rights were somewhat protected: punishments required a magistrate’s ruling.

Once freed, many convicts remained in the colony, with land grants as incentives.

Question 17

How did convict women fare in early New South Wales?

Answer 17

Women made up only one-sixth of the convict population.

Many were raped upon arrival or forced into relationships for survival.

The Female Register (1806) categorized them as either married or “concubines.”

Over time, legal marriages gave women more rights, such as property inheritance.

Some, like Elizabeth Macarthur, became powerful business figures.

Question 18

What were the “Rum Years” (1792–1809)?

Answer 18

Definition:

The period when the New South Wales Corps controlled the colony and used rum as a form of currency.
Significance:

The Corps’ monopoly over the alcohol trade led to widespread corruption and a lack of proper monetary system in early New South Wales.

Question 19

What is a “Promissory Note”?

Answer 19

Definition:

A written promise to pay a certain sum of money at a later date, commonly used in early Sydney.
Significance:

Promissory notes were often issued as an alternative to currency, helping facilitate trade in the absence of a stable monetary system.

Question 20

What was the New South Wales Corps?

Answer 20

Definition:

A military regiment formed in 1789 to replace the marines as the colony’s primary military force.
Significance:

The Corps gained immense political and economic power in the colony, controlling trade, especially in alcohol, until its removal in 1809 after the Rum Rebellion.

Question 21

What was the Rum Rebellion (1808)?

Answer 21

Definition:

The mutiny by the New South Wales Corps that resulted in the removal of Governor William Bligh from power.
Significance:

It marked a pivotal moment in the colony’s history, leading to the establishment of Governor Macquarie’s rule and the weakening of the Corps’ influence.

Question 22

What is an “Emancipist”?

Answer 22

Definition:

A convict who had completed their sentence and was granted freedom, often becoming a free settler in the colony.
Significance:

Emancipists played a key role in the growth of the colony, with many acquiring land and contributing to the economy.

Question 23

What are “Currency” in the context of convict society?

Answer 23

Definition:

Children born to convicts in Australia, who were healthier and more fit for life in the colony compared to their parents.
Significance:

Currency children were seen as more adaptable to Australian conditions and were often the future of the colonial workforce.

Question 24

What is an “Exclusive”?

Answer 24

Definition:

A free settler, often a former officer of the New South Wales Corps, who sought to dominate land and trade in the colony.
Significance:

Exclusives had considerable influence and social standing, often leading to tensions with the Emancipists, who were formerly convicts.

Question 25

What was Van Diemen’s Land?

Answer 25

Definition: Present-day Tasmania, which was established as a secondary penal settlement. Significance: Van Diemen’s Land became a notorious destination for convicts, with a reputation for harsh treatment and conditions.

Question 26

What is "Benefit of Clergy"?

Answer 26

Definition: A legal privilege that allowed individuals to avoid certain punishments, such as execution, by proving they were part of the clergy or had a religious background. Significance: It was a significant legal loophole, often used by those seeking to escape severe penalties in both Britain and the colonies.

Question 27

What is a "Ticket of Leave"?

Answer 27

Definition: A document that allowed convicts to hire themselves out or be self-employed before their sentence expired, on the condition that they remain in a specified area, report to local authorities regularly, and possibly attend church every Sunday. Significance: Originally granted by Governor King on arrival to convicts, it was later altered under Governor Macquarie to ensure convicts served part of their sentences. The system evolved, but it remained at the governor’s discretion, with a formal system developed under Governor Brisbane.

Question 28

Who was Michael Hayes?

Answer 28

Definition: An Irish convict who wrote to his sister in 1798 about the harsh conditions in the Australian colony, particularly for women. Significance: Hayes warned his sister about the dangerous and lonely life awaiting convict women, where most supported themselves through prostitution, which was sanctioned by the governors from the outset of settlement.

Question 29

What was the significance of "Skilled Labour" (Specials) in the colony?

Answer 29

Definition: Convicts with useful skills, such as forgers, painters, and literate individuals, who were highly valued for their labor. Significance: Skilled convicts, like Francis Greenway (architect), George Crossley (lawyer), and William Redfern (surgeon), contributed significantly to the development of the colony by fulfilling vital roles in public works and services.

Question 30

What were "Land Grants to Ex-Convicts" and how did they affect the colony?

Answer 30

Definition: Land grants given to emancipated convicts, allowing them to settle and contribute to the colony's development. Significance: These land grants were part of the original plan by Governor Phillip and continued under Macquarie. It allowed emancipists to farm and contribute to the colony’s food production, especially in the Hawkesbury region. The grants were integral to the colony’s survival and expansion.

Question 31

What is the First Select Committee Report (1812)?

Answer 31

Definition: A report examining the penal system, particularly the granting of tickets of leave and pardons under Governor Macquarie. Significance: The report supported Macquarie's liberal approach to the penal system but recommended fewer tickets of leave be granted and opposed pardons. However, Macquarie's authority was upheld, despite opposition from Exclusives.

Question 32

What were the Hawkesbury River Land Grants and how did they contribute to settlement?

Answer 32

Definition: Land grants made near the Hawkesbury River to emancipists, which helped the colony expand and become self-sufficient. Significance: These land grants helped increase food production, supporting Sydney’s growing population. Governor Macquarie’s support of this settlement led to the establishment of five towns in the region between 1810 and 1811. However, it also caused conflicts with local Aboriginal populations.

Question 33

What was Macquarie’s role in the development of the Hawkesbury Region?

Answer 33

Definition: Governor Macquarie strongly supported the settlement of the Hawkesbury River, issuing land grants and founding towns in the area. Significance: Macquarie’s vision of expanding European settlement in the region resulted in the growth of agricultural production. However, it also led to violent conflict with the local Aboriginal Darug people, including the 1816 punitive expedition where 14 Aboriginal people were killed.

Question 34

What were the "Macquarie Towns"?

Answer 34

Definition: Towns developed under Governor Macquarie’s guidance in the Hawkesbury region, including Castlereagh, Richmond, Windsor, Pitt Town, and Wilberforce. Significance: These towns were built following a set plan, each containing a school, church, and inn. Macquarie’s infrastructure improvements boosted the colony’s economy and helped it endure economic difficulties such as droughts and floods.

Question 35

What was the "Rum Hospital"?

Answer 35

Definition: A hospital built by Governor Macquarie in the center of Sydney, funded through the granting of a liquor trade license to the builders. Significance: The hospital, nicknamed the "Rum Hospital," provided much-needed medical facilities for the colony. Its construction helped provide jobs for convicts and emancipists, contributing to the colony’s stability during tough economic periods.

Question 36

What was the significance of the Blue Mountains Road?

Answer 36

Definition: A road built by Governor Macquarie that opened up grazing plains beyond the Blue Mountains. Significance: The road enabled the expansion of the wool industry, which would become the dominant industry in Australia by the 1820s, boosting the colony’s economy and facilitating the growth of settlements beyond Sydney.

Question 37

What was the Aboriginal population like at the time of British arrival?

Answer 37

Aboriginal people had lived on the Australian continent for at least 50,000 years. Settlement in Tasmania and parts of southeastern Australia occurred much later due to an ice barrier. Aboriginal societies were based on hunting, not farming, and their culture was deeply tied to their Dreaming. Estimates of the Aboriginal population in Australia at the time of British arrival range from 300,000 to 1 million.

Question 38

How did British settlers view Aboriginal people upon arrival?

Answer 38

Captain Cook claimed Australia as Terra Nullius (land that belonged to no one), ignoring orders to seek the consent of the Aboriginal people. The British settlers viewed Aboriginal people as "savages," and this view led to the genocide of many Aboriginal groups. Governor Arthur Phillip was instructed to establish peaceful relations, but these were undermined by the settlers' attitudes and actions.

Question 39

What was the nature of early contact between the British and the Eora people of New South Wales?

Answer 39

Around 2,500 Aboriginal people of the Eora nation lived in the area where the first settlement in New South Wales was established. Early meetings were marked by mutual incomprehension but also moments of peace. Tensions grew when convicts stole from the Aboriginal people, who retaliated by stealing tools. This led to violence, including the murder of two convicts by the local Aboriginal group in May 1788.

Question 40

What role did disease play in the impact of British settlement?

Answer 40

Smallpox spread among the Aboriginal population in 1789, killing up to 50% or more of the coastal population. The source of the epidemic remains debated, with possibilities including transmission from the First Fleet, Makassan traders, or even accidental transmission via goods and clothing. The impact of the disease devastated Aboriginal groups, such as the Cadigal, who saw their numbers dwindle from 50–80 to as few as three survivors.

Question 41

How did British settlement impact the Aboriginal way of life in New South Wales?

Answer 41

British settlement led to the loss of hunting grounds, which were essential to the Aboriginal people’s survival. The settlers’ agricultural practices, such as the introduction of farming and livestock, further displaced Aboriginal people from their traditional lands. Violence and retaliation: Aboriginal people resisted, but their actions were met with harsh reprisals by the British authorities, including punitive expeditions.

Question 42

What was the situation for Aboriginal people in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania)?

Answer 42

The Aboriginal population of Van Diemen’s Land was estimated at around 3,000–4,000 at the time of British settlement in 1803. Settler violence was particularly brutal, with convicts armed and encouraged to kill Aboriginal people, often viewing them as pests to be eradicated. Disease, including venereal disease and other viruses brought by settlers and whalers, ravaged the Aboriginal population.

Question 43

How did Governor Arthur's policies affect the Aboriginal people of Tasmania?

Answer 43

Governor Arthur attempted to control the Aboriginal population by creating designated settled districts and forcing Aboriginal people into these areas. In 1828, he declared martial law to force Aboriginal people to relocate and calm settler fears. This policy was part of an attempt to control the violence between settlers and Aboriginal groups. Despite these measures, the Aboriginal population continued to suffer under settler violence, disease, and displacement.

Question 44

What was the fate of the Aboriginal population in Tasmania?

Answer 44

By the late 1820s, the increasing settler population and the introduction of sheep farming further decimated the Aboriginal population of Van Diemen’s Land. The last known Aboriginal person in Tasmania died in 1876. Despite earlier proclamations from Governors Collins, Davey, and Sorrell instructing settlers not to harm Aboriginal people, the violence continued, leading to the near extinction of the Aboriginal population in Tasmania.

Question 45

What is the significance of the Black War in the history of Aboriginal resistance?

Answer 45

The Black War refers to the violent conflict between settlers and the Aboriginal population of Tasmania, occurring mainly in the 1820s. The introduction of farming and livestock destroyed Aboriginal food sources, leading to retaliatory raids by Aboriginal people against settlers. Governor Arthur’s policies, including martial law and the relocation of Aboriginal groups, were ineffective in preventing the destruction of the Aboriginal population.

Question 46

How did the British attempt to communicate with the Aboriginal people in Van Diemen’s Land?

Answer 46

George Frankland, the surveyor general, suggested that Aboriginal people in Van Diemen’s Land used drawings on tree bark to communicate. He proposed using these drawings to convey British messages to the Aboriginal people, though the effort was limited by the language barrier and mutual incomprehension.

Question 47

What is the ongoing debate about the treatment of Aboriginal people during British settlement?

Answer 47

The genocide of Aboriginal people during the British colonization of Australia, particularly in New South Wales and Tasmania, remains a subject of intense historical and political debate. Issues related to Aboriginal rights, history education, and racism in Australia today stem from the legacy of British settlement and its impact on the Indigenous population.

Question 48

What was the extent of convict transportation to Australia between 1788 and 1868?

Answer 48

A total of around 168,000 convicts were transported to Australia between 1788 and 1868. Transportation numbers steadily increased from 1788 to 1830, with a sharp rise after 1815. By 1800, only 42 ships had sailed to Australia, and transportation didn’t reach 1,000 convicts in a single year until 1814. After 1815, transportation rose as Britain had more shipping available, partially due to the end of the Napoleonic Wars, which also caused economic problems and increased crime.

Question 49

Why did transportation to Australia increase after 1815?

Answer 49

The end of the Napoleonic Wars provided Britain with more available shipping. There were short-term economic issues in Britain, and crime increased, creating the need for more convict transportation. Britain’s population grew rapidly between 1801 and 1841, especially during the 1811-1820 period.

Question 50

What were the phases of transportation between 1766 and 1840?

Answer 50

1766-1810: 9,300 male convicts, 2,500 female convicts. 1811-1820: 15,400 male convicts, 2,000 female convicts. 1821-1830: 28,700 male convicts, 4,100 female convicts. 1831-1840: 43,500 male convicts, 7,700 female convicts.

Question 51

What was the role of convicts in the colony’s population growth?

Answer 51

Convicts were the primary source of new inhabitants in Australia due to the lack of free settlers, who were few due to the long distance. Officers of the New South Wales Corps and their successors formed the basis of free settlers, with the native-born population growing rapidly. By 1828, the free population (20,870) outnumbered the convict population (15,728), prompting a demand for political representation.

Question 52

How did free settlers contribute to the colony’s development?

Answer 52

Free settlement mostly resulted from soldiers sent to guard the convicts, who remained after serving their terms. A small number of settlers were attracted by economic opportunities. The first organized attempt to establish a free settlement occurred in Western Australia in 1829.

Question 53

What was the significance of Van Diemen's Land in the penal system?

Answer 53

Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) was settled in 1803 as a strategic location for whaling and as a penal colony. It operated as a semi-independent adjunct to the New South Wales colony until 1824. Under Governor Sir George Arthur (1823-1837), the island became known for its harsh penal regime, with convicts subjected to a strict system of punishment.

Question 54

How did the whaling and sealing industries contribute to the colony's economy?

Answer 54

Whaling and sealing became crucial to Australia's economy in the early years of settlement, providing products like whale oil, sealskins, and whalebone for trade. The whaling industry began in 1791 and remained significant for about 70 years. It was initially dominated by Emancipists and Currency lads (former convicts and their descendants). The wool industry became more significant by the 1830s, but whaling and sealing were essential for the survival of the colony in its early years.

Question 55

What was the role of John Macarthur in the development of the wool industry?

Answer 55

John Macarthur was instrumental in developing Australia’s wool industry, importing merino sheep and exporting the first bale of wool to Britain. His efforts, supported by his wife Elizabeth, contributed to the colony’s economic growth, with wool becoming a dominant industry by 1820-1840.

Question 56

What was the significance of the crossing of the Blue Mountains in 1813?

Answer 56

The crossing of the Blue Mountains by Blaxland, Lawson, and Wentworth opened up vast new grazing lands for the burgeoning wool industry. The successful expedition paved the way for the construction of a road across the mountains, facilitating settlement in the western regions of New South Wales.

Question 57

How did the Australian Agricultural Company contribute to the economy?

Answer 57

The Australian Agricultural Company, established in 1824, received one million acres for agricultural development. It started sheep farming in 1825, using convict labor, and contributed significantly to the colony’s agricultural expansion.

Question 58

What was the nature of early settlement in Western Australia?

Answer 58

Western Australia was settled in 1826 to prevent French influence in the region and to establish trade links with Asia. The Swan River Company, formed in 1828, aimed to settle 10,000 free settlers in exchange for land grants. Despite early struggles, the settlement reflected a shift in British thinking, emphasizing private investment and economic opportunity rather than just penal colonies.

Question 59

How did political developments change the governance of the Australian colonies?

Answer 59

Early governors held almost unlimited power, but by 1829, communication with Britain increased, and governors were required to consult with the free citizens of the colony. The New South Wales Act of 1823 introduced a legislative council, with appointed members advising the governor. The justice system became independent, with the establishment of a supreme court. By 1828, Van Diemen's Land had a similar system, reflecting a shift towards more structured colonial governance.

Question 60

How did the Bigge Report affect the Australian colonies?

Answer 60

The Bigge Report (1819-1821) recommended limiting early pardons and tickets of leave, assigning convict labor to sheep farms, and ceasing land grants for Emancipists. It led to reforms that transformed New South Wales from a penal settlement to a more self-sufficient economy, attracting private capital and expanding colonial industries. The report's recommendations also emphasized the punitive nature of transportation and shaped future penal administration.

Question 61

What were the political and economic changes in Australia by 1829?

Answer 61

By 1829, the British had shifted from viewing Australia as a penal colony to seeing it as a place for economic opportunity, demonstrated by the land grants to companies. The governance structure changed, with a legislative council, independent justice system, and an emphasis on free settlers. Political power shifted towards the "Exclusives," a wealthy, land-owning class, and the colony saw increased private investment and a booming economy, particularly in wool and agriculture.