Canada and the Durham Report - 1837-40

Question 1

How did the British establish control over New France and how did this affect the relationship with the USA?

Answer 1

The British gained control over New France after the Seven Years’ War and the Peace of Paris in 1763. This caused tension with the American colonies, leading to their revolt against British rule due to the new taxation policies Britain imposed to protect its new territories.

Question 2

How were Upper and Lower Canada structured politically after the creation of the 1791 Constitution?

Answer 2

The 1791 Constitution divided Canada into Upper and Lower Canada. Upper Canada had a largely British population, while Lower Canada was a mix of French descendants and new loyalist settlers. Both had political systems that were similar, with appointed executive councils and legislative assemblies.

Question 3

What was the Family Compact and how did it influence Upper Canada’s politics?

Answer 3

The Family Compact was a small group of men who controlled the executive council in Upper Canada from the 1810s to the 1840s. They were loyal to the British Crown, adherents of the Anglican Church, and maintained a firm grip on power, often for their own benefit. Their influence led to tensions with Reformers in the legislative assembly.

Question 4

How did land tenure in Upper Canada differ from Lower Canada?

Answer 4

Upper Canada had a British freehold land tenure system, allowing settlers to own land and improve it. In contrast, Lower Canada used a feudal seigneurial system where land was granted to seigneurs, who then rented it out to tenants.

Question 5

How did the Family Compact maintain power despite challenges from Reformers?

Answer 5

The Family Compact maintained power by controlling the executive council and preventing reforms, particularly those related to the clergy reserves. Even if the legislative assembly passed laws, they could be blocked by the appointed legislative council, which was dominated by the Family Compact.

Question 6

What were the main causes of tension in Upper Canada in the 1820s and 1830s?

Answer 6

Tensions in Upper Canada arose due to the Family Compact’s control over political power, land distribution, and the clergy reserves. There were also frustrations over the lack of infrastructure and the provincial government’s financial mismanagement.

Question 7

What was the role of the Reformers in Upper Canada, and what did they demand?

Answer 7

The Reformers in Upper Canada, supported by the Upper Canada Central Political Union, called for a more responsible government. They sought the removal of the Family Compact, greater economic and political control, and constitutional reforms to make the executive responsible to Canadian voters rather than the British Crown.

Question 8

What was the seigneurial system in Lower Canada, and how did it differ from Upper Canada’s system?

Answer 8

The seigneurial system in Lower Canada was based on a feudal model, where land was granted to seigneurs, who then sublet it to tenants. This system differed from Upper Canada’s freehold system, which encouraged direct land ownership and investment by settlers.

Question 9

How did the French-speaking population in Lower Canada feel about British rule and the English-speaking oligarchy?

Answer 9

The French-speaking population in Lower Canada was wary of the English-speaking elite, the Chateau Clique, who controlled the political and economic systems. They felt their cultural identity and way of life were under threat, especially as the English-speaking population grew due to the influx of loyalists.

Question 10

How did the British government respond to French-Canadian concerns in Lower Canada?

Answer 10

The British government addressed French-Canadian concerns by guaranteeing religious freedom through the Quebec Act of 1774 and allowing the continuation of French civil law. This helped prevent potential rebellion from the French-Canadians, but tensions remained due to cultural differences with the English-speaking elite.

Question 11

Why did tensions in Lower Canada escalate in the 1820s and 1830s?

Answer 11

Tensions in Lower Canada grew due to the dominance of the English-speaking Chateau Clique and their and preserved their land tenure system through the Quebec Act of 1774 and the 1791 Constitution. These measures were designed to prevent rebellion by ensuring the French-Canadians’ cultural and religious rights were protected, thereby minimizing the threat of American influence and fostering loyalty to Britain.

Question 12

What was the purpose of the 1791 Constitution in the Canadas, and how did it reflect British concerns about potential uprisings?

Answer 12

The 1791 Constitution aimed to create a balanced political system that allowed for some autonomy through elected assemblies while still retaining control through appointed councils and the lieutenant governor. This system was informed by British concerns about the American Revolution and aimed to prevent similar revolts in Canada by addressing local governance and issues such as taxation and religious freedom.

Question 13

How did the British use political autonomy to avoid rebellion in the Canadas?

Answer 13

The British allowed the provinces to have locally elected legislative assemblies with powers over taxation and local laws, which they believed would reduce dissatisfaction and prevent rebellion, similar to the causes of the American Revolution. However, ultimate executive control rested with British-appointed officials, which created tensions over time.

Question 14

Why was Upper Canada more economically viable than Lower Canada, and how did this contribute to political tensions?

Answer 14

Upper Canada had more land available for settlement and a more favorable land tenure system, allowing settlers to improve their land. However, the lack of infrastructure and capital investment limited its potential. The government’s reliance on land sales to raise revenue, rather than working with the legislative assembly to collect taxes, caused frustration among Reformers and led to calls for a more responsible government.

Question 15

What was the significance of the 1822 proposal to unite Upper and Lower Canada, and why was it rejected?

Answer 15

The 1822 proposal to unite Upper and Lower Canada was seen by English-speaking elites as a way to create an English-speaking majority and resolve tensions. However, French-Canadians opposed it, fearing the loss of their cultural and political identity. The proposal was abandoned after significant opposition from the French-speaking population.

Question 16

Who were the Patriotes, and what role did they play in Lower Canada?

Answer 16

The Patriotes were a group of French-speaking professionals in Lower Canada who sought political reform. They represented a wide range of views, from those inspired by the French and American revolutions to those who wanted to preserve the French system of land tenure. They became a significant political force, advocating for greater political representation and the protection of French-Canadian identity.

Question 17

How did the British colonial government in Canada react to the demands for reform in the 1830s?

Answer 17

The British colonial government was largely resistant to reform in the 1830s, as it feared that changes to the political system might lead to greater unrest or rebellion. However, the mounting dissatisfaction, especially in Lower Canada, forced the British government to eventually consider constitutional reforms and more responsible government structures.

Question 18

What was the impact of the 1837 rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada on British policy?

Answer 18

The 1837 rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada highlighted the deep political and social divisions within the colonies. In response, the British government began to reconsider the political systems in place, leading to discussions on responsible government and the need for reforms to address the demands of both English and French-speaking Canadians.

Question 19

What was the role of the legislative assembly in both Upper and Lower Canada, and how did it influence political tensions?

Answer 19

The legislative assemblies in both Upper and Lower Canada had the power to pass laws, including those related to taxation and local governance. However, their powers were often undermined by appointed executive councils, which could block legislation. This created significant frustration and led to demands for greater political responsibility and control by locally elected representatives.

Question 20

What were the underlying grievances in the Canadas leading up to the revolts in 1837-38?

Answer 20

The British were aware of tensions building in the Canadas as early as 1828.

Lower Canada, with 87,000 petitioners, presented a major grievance.

The British appointed the Canada Committee in 1828 to investigate these issues.

The Committee’s report, published in 1829, did not suggest constitutional reform.

It argued that the governor and lieutenant governor should manage the system effectively instead.

The report acknowledged issues but failed to provide effective solutions.

It was more focused on Lower Canada’s issues and recommended no real change to the constitutional system.

Question 21

How did the British government respond to the complaints from the Canadas?

Answer 21

The British response was slow, and reform was delayed due to the focus on British parliamentary reforms in the early 1830s.

The Whigs came to power in 1830, focused on reforming the British parliamentary system rather than addressing the Canadian grievances.

The British failed to implement the recommendations from the Canada Committee, frustrating reformers in the Canadas.

Question 22

What was the political situation like in Upper Canada before the 1837 revolt?

Answer 22

Upper Canada was controlled by the Family Compact and the Anglican Church, leading to tensions.

Radical Reformers, led by William Lyon Mackenzie, began to advocate for more drastic changes in the 1830s.

The political system was highly centralized, with executive decisions made by the lieutenant governors rather than the elected assembly.

Concerns about immigration and the arrival of impoverished emigrants from Britain also contributed to unrest.

Mackenzie and other radicals sought inspiration from the American Revolution and argued for more independence from Britain.

Question 23

What were the immediate causes of the 1837 rebellion in Upper Canada?

Answer 23

Radical Reformers in Upper Canada, led by William Lyon Mackenzie, called for drastic change after the 1836 election.

The actions of Lieutenant Governors Colborne and Head alienated many settlers, especially with the allocation of clergy reserves to Anglican parishes.

In 1836, Sir Francis Bond Head’s personal intervention in the election led to a pro-government majority, which increased tensions.

The 1836 election victory for the government led to laws that solidified their position and restricted the power of the Reformers.

Question 24

Who were the key figures involved in the revolt in Upper Canada?

Answer 24

William Lyon Mackenzie was the leading figure of the revolt, using his newspaper to rally support.

Mackenzie had been persecuted by the Family Compact, which helped build his reputation as a reformer.

Robert Baldwin, a more moderate reformer, was in London during the revolt, protesting against his removal from the executive council.

The rebellion was led by Mackenzie and other radical reformers, though Baldwin’s vision of responsible government was less extreme.

Question 25

What were the events of the 1837 rebellion in Upper Canada?

Answer 25

The rebellion began in December 1837 when Mackenzie and around 1,000 rebels gathered at Montgomery’s tavern in Toronto. The rebels, mostly farmers of American origin, were poorly organized and unclear about their objectives. On December 5, the rebels clashed with loyalists but were quickly dispersed. A second confrontation occurred in Brantford, but the rebels were again defeated. Mackenzie and his followers fled to Navy Island in the Niagara River, where they declared a provisional state. On January 13, 1838, Mackenzie was captured after the rebels were defeated and his supply ship, the Caroline, was burned.

Question 26

How did the British government respond to the revolt in Upper Canada?

Answer 26

British forces quickly dealt with the rebellion, and Mackenzie’s leadership was seen as inconsistent. The British sent reinforcements to Upper Canada, weakening Mackenzie’s position. The British also had the advantage of a smaller, but more well-equipped military force.

Question 27

What were the results of the revolt in Upper Canada?

Answer 27

Following the government’s victory, hundreds—possibly thousands—of rebels and sympathizers fled to America. Those who remained in Upper Canada were often arrested, with two rebels being hanged. The political climate in Upper Canada changed significantly after 1837. Advocates of an American-style revolution either fled or kept their opinions private. Upper Canada’s political discourse became focused on loyalty to Britain and preserving its British identity. The British government attributed the rebellion to the actions of the Family Compact over many years. As a result, the British realized that reforms were needed to improve governance in the province. Moderate reformers, such as Robert Baldwin, gained prominence, attracting the attention of Lord Durham. Lord Durham was sent to investigate and propose solutions to the problems in Upper Canada.

Question 28

What were the long-term causes of the revolt in Lower Canada?

Answer 28

The French-speaking majority was excluded from the executive branch of government. Governors tended to appoint British and loyalist officials to the executive council. French-Canadian grievances regarding political representation and governance remained unresolved. The seigneurial land system, which many reformers wanted to abolish, remained a contentious issue.

Question 29

What were the short-term causes of the revolt in Lower Canada?

Answer 29

The appointment of the Canada Committee in 1828 raised hopes for reform. However, the British government failed to implement significant changes. Louis-Joseph Papineau’s leadership of the Patriotes strengthened anti-British sentiment. Economic and social problems, including hardship among the habitants and tensions from immigration, increased unrest. The Gosford Commission of Inquiry in 1835 revealed that Britain had no intention of granting constitutional reform. The rejection of the 92 Resolutions by the British government in March 1837 led to widespread discontent.

Question 30

Who was Louis-Joseph Papineau, and what was his role in the revolt?

Answer 30

Papineau was a descendant of an old seigneurial family and a prominent figure in Lower Canadian politics. His opposition to British rule stemmed from French-Canadian nationalism rather than radical political ideology. From 1830 onward, he refused to compromise with the British government on financial matters. He rejected the Civil List, which would have paid officials’ salaries, as he opposed British economic control. He drafted the 92 Resolutions in 1834, demanding constitutional reform and the protection of French-Canadian identity. Although he spoke at large demonstrations, he fled to America when the revolt began in 1837. His departure may have been due to cowardice or the British warrant for his arrest. He remained in exile until his pardon in 1845, later returning to advocate for American-style democracy.

Question 31

What economic problems contributed to the revolt in Lower Canada?

Answer 31

Lower Canada’s economy struggled in the 1830s, worsening hardship for the habitants. Increased immigration led to social tensions, as many immigrants brought diseases like cholera. A cholera outbreak in 1832 heightened unrest, leading to an election riot where British troops fired on a crowd. The government faced difficulties paying officials due to the assembly’s refusal to approve British financial proposals. The economic crisis strengthened the more radical faction of the Patriote Party.

Question 32

What was the significance of the Gosford Commission (1835)?

Answer 32

Lord Gosford was sent to investigate grievances in Lower Canada but faced difficulties from the start. Sir Francis Bond Head revealed the commission’s full terms in Upper Canada, angering the Patriotes. The inquiry confirmed that Britain had no intention of granting meaningful constitutional reform. The multiple reports from the commission failed to address key French-Canadian concerns. The issue of Canadian reform was sent to the British Parliament for further debate. In March 1837, the Russell Resolutions rejected the 92 Resolutions and allowed the governor to use public funds without assembly approval. News of the Russell Resolutions led to widespread agitation, protests, and calls for a boycott of British goods. Lord Gosford responded by increasing British military presence and banning public meetings. The banks closed on May 18, 1837, worsening tensions and pushing the Patriotes toward revolt.

Question 33

What were the results of the revolt in Lower Canada?

Answer 33

The extent of the rebellion in Lower Canada was significantly greater than in Upper Canada. Over 500 prisoners were held in Montreal jails after the revolt, and some estimates put the number of rebels involved as high as 13,000. On 10 February 1838, the British government suspended the 1791 Constitution of Lower Canada and granted Governor Gosford authority to rule the province with a special appointed council. Martial law in Montreal was revoked on 27 April 1838 after Gosford deemed the main leaders had been captured and the unrest had subsided. The British viewed the rebellion in Lower Canada differently from that in Upper Canada due to its ethnic composition—the rebels were French-Canadian, which reinforced racial tensions in British assessments. Britain sought to prevent the French-Canadians from commanding a majority in any future assembly while also limiting the power of the Château Clique (the British loyalist elite who had contributed to the unrest). The British government acknowledged the need for a new constitutional settlement in Lower Canada, ensuring that British settlers' rights were protected and that the system of land tenure, seen as a source of economic hardship, was reformed.

Question 34

Was there a real threat of revolution in the Canadas?

Answer 34

Although the revolts were small in scale, with around 1,000 rebels at their largest gatherings in Toronto and Montreal, they were taken seriously by Britain. The British military was able to suppress both revolts relatively easily, but the British government viewed the situation in Lower Canada as more dangerous due to the distinct French-Canadian identity of the rebels. The revolts raised concerns about a potential repeat of the American Revolution, which had occurred only 50 years earlier. While the number of rebels was small, the provinces were sparsely populated, meaning even minor uprisings had the potential to cause significant disruption. British fears may have been justified, as unrest could have escalated in the summer of 1838 had immediate measures not been taken to calm public opinion.

Question 35

How significant was the Earl of Durham’s 1839 report to Britain’s relationship with its colonies?

Answer 35

Lord Durham’s arrival in Quebec was marked by extravagance—he paraded through the streets on a white horse, dressed in the regalia of the Order of Bath, and lived in luxury at Château St. Louis. Durham embodied both the strengths and weaknesses of the Whig aristocracy: he was fabulously wealthy and high-handed but also open to new ideas and committed to reform. His analysis of the Canadian situation was perceptive, and his report introduced the concept of "responsible self-government"—a system where settler colonies would elect their own legislatures and executives while controlling their own economies and taxes. The report recommended the immediate unification of Upper and Lower Canada to dilute the French-Canadian majority in Lower Canada. Though the Whigs were too politically weak to implement all of Durham’s recommendations, the union of the Canadas became law, and responsible self-government was gradually adopted, first in Nova Scotia in 1848. The Durham Report played a crucial role in shaping Britain’s 19th-century colonial policy, fostering loyalty in white settler colonies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand by granting them self-rule. However, self-government was only applied to white settler colonies. Britain did not extend the same system to Jamaica or India, which contributed to the rise of nationalism in non-settler colonies later in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Question 36

What were some of the limitations of Durham’s report?

Answer 36

Durham failed to mention Indigenous peoples at all, despite his report discussing land settlement and tenure in Canada. At the time, there was an active debate in Britain about Indigenous rights, and the Aboriginal Protection Society existed, yet Durham overlooked these issues entirely. When he referred to "native citizens," he meant French-Canadians, not Indigenous peoples. This omission highlighted a wider pattern in British colonial policy, where responsible self-government was only considered for white settler colonies, not for Indigenous populations or subject colonies like India or Jamaica.

Question 37

How important was Lord Durham’s role as High Commissioner in Canada?

Answer 37

Durham’s appointment was crucial in temporarily stabilizing the political situation in Canada. He was widely popular in the provinces, partly because of his actions and partly because of the strong British military response to the revolts. His ability to consult widely with the population and dismiss the views of the old ruling elite set him apart from his predecessor, Governor Gosford, who had lacked the same sweeping powers. His popularity helped shift Canadian politics away from the revolutionary American model and back toward engagement with the British government. However, his removal from office before he had time to implement significant changes meant he left before disappointing his supporters, which may have enhanced his reputation.

Question 38

What was Edward Gibbon Wakefield’s theory of systematic colonisation?

Answer 38

Wakefield proposed that land in colonies should be sold at a high price rather than given away or sold cheaply. He argued this would benefit colonial economies by encouraging only those who could afford land to settle.

Question 39

What was Wakefield’s role in colonial settlement?

Answer 39

He developed his theory while in Newgate Prison and published it anonymously. Despite his wealth, his notoriety prevented him from entering politics officially. He influenced land schemes in multiple colonies, including South Australia and New Zealand. He opposed free land grants in Canada, believing they caused economic problems. He hoped to be appointed commissioner of lands in Canada but was prevented by Lord Melbourne. Instead, he acted as an unpaid adviser to Lord Durham and Charles Buller. His appendix in Durham’s report suggested taxing unsettled lands to fund public works. His proposal for land taxation was not implemented. He supported the union of Upper and Lower Canada for economic reasons.

Question 40

Who was Charles Buller, and what was his role in Canadian affairs?

Answer 40

An able and well-liked politician and journalist, untainted by scandal. Served as Durham’s chief secretary and nominal head of the Commission into Crown Lands. Though sympathetic to French-Canadian rebels, he suggested banishing a small group to Bermuda. This decision contributed to Durham’s resignation. Stayed in Canada to help complete Durham’s report, returning to London in December 1838. Published Responsible Government for Colonies in 1840, advocating self-government in Canada.

Question 41

What were the key recommendations of the Durham Report (1839)?

Answer 41

Unification of Upper and Lower Canada to place French-Canadians in a minority position. Rescinding the freedoms granted under the Quebec Act to promote economic growth. Introduction of responsible self-government based on Robert Baldwin’s principles. A legislative assembly would be elected. The majority party would form the government. The governor would become a symbolic figure.

Question 42

What criticisms were made of the Durham Report?

Answer 42

Harsh treatment of French-Canadians, aiming to erase their institutions and identity. Ignored Indigenous populations entirely. The recommendations, however, maintained British control over Canada. The report became foundational for self-government in the British Empire.

Question 43

How was the Durham Report received and implemented?

Answer 43

The British government accepted the recommendation to unite Upper and Lower Canada. Legislation was introduced in May 1839. Charles Poulett Thomson was sent to Canada to secure agreement. Upper Canada supported union to ease its financial difficulties and ensure British dominance. Lower Canada’s assembly was suspended, allowing the British to proceed with union. The Act of Union was proclaimed on 10 February 1841 in Montreal.

Question 44

What were the long-term implications of the Durham Report?

Answer 44

Initially, Durham’s obituary did not highlight his role in responsible self-government. The policy of self-government was gradually adopted across the Empire. Canada gained responsible self-government between 1848-1855. Australia and New Zealand followed in the 1850s, except for Western Australia, which received self-government in 1890. The Durham Report became the intellectual foundation for Britain’s governance of its white settler colonies. Had the policy not been implemented, settler colonies might have left the Empire in the mid-19th century.