The Biological Perspective Flashcards
Nervous System
the extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.
Neuroscience
a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functions of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissues.
Biological Psychology or Behavioral Neuroscience
the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.
Neuron
the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system.
Dendrites
the branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.
Soma
the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of a cell.
Axon
the tube-like structures of neuron that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals, for communication with other cells.
Axon Terminals
the enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells.
Glial Cells
the cells that provide support for the neuron to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons.
Myelin
the fatty substance produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.
Nerves
the bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body.
Diffusion
the process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.
Resting Potential
the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.
Action Potential
the release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon.
All-or-None
is referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
Synaptic Vesicles
the sac-like structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals.
Neurotransmitters
the chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell.
Synapse
the microscopic fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites or soma of the next cell.
Receptor Sites
the three-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.
Excitatory Synapse
the synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.
Inhibitory Synapse
the synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.
Antagonists
the chemical substance that block or reduce a cell’s response to action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.
Agonists
the chemical substance that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.
Reuptake
the process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.
Enzymatic Degradation
the process by which the structure of a neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor.
Central Nervous System
the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
a long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast lifesaving reflexes.
Afferent Sensory Neuron
a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system.
Efferent Sensory Neuron
a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body.
Interneuron
a neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the afferent neurons and sends commands to the muscles through the efferent neurons. Interneurons also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.
Reflex
an involuntarily response, one that is not under personal control or choice.
Neuroplasticity
the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma.
Neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons; occurs primarily during prenatal development but may also occur at lesser levels in some brain areas during adulthood.
Stem Cells
the special cells found in all the tissues of the body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear.
Epigenetics
the interaction between genes and environmental factors that influence gene activity; environmental factors include diet, life experiences, and physical surroundings.
Peripheral Nervous System
the nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself.
Somatic Nervous System
the division of the Peripheral Nervous System consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the Central Nervous System and from there to the voluntary muscles of the body.
Autonomic Nervous System
the division of the Peripheral Nervous System consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.
Sensory Pathway
the nerves coming from the sensory organs to the Central Nervous System consisting of afferent neurons.
Motor Pathway
the nerves coming from the Central Nervous System to the voluntary muscles, consisting of efferent neurons.
Sympathetic Division
the part of the Autonomic Nervous System that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal; “fight-or-flight system.”
Parasympathetic Division
the part of the Autonomic Nervous System that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and the glands; eat-drink-and-rest system.”
Endocrine Glands
the glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Hormones
the chemicals released into the blood-stream by endocrine glands.
Pituitary Gland
the gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands and is also known as the master gland.
Oxytocin
the hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and parental behaviors.
Pineal Gland
the endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum and secretes melatonin.
Thyroid Gland
the endocrine gland found in the neck and regulates metabolism.
Pancreas
the endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood.
Gonads
the sex glands that secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction.
Ovaries
the female gonads or sex glands.
Testes
the male gonads or sex glands.
Adrenal Glands
the endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over thirty different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence.
Lesioning
the insertion of a thin, insulated electrode into the brain through which an electrical current is sent, destroying the brain cells at the tip of the wire.
Computed Tomography Scan (CT)
the brain-imaging method using computer-controlling x-rays of the brain.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
the brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
a recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes.
Position Emission Tomography (PET)
the brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI)
the MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in the brain oxygenation.
Medulla
the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.
Pons
the larger swelling above the medulla that relays information from the cortex to the cerebellum, and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.
Reticular Formation (RF)
the area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.
Cerebellum
the part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement, and may have some cognitive functions.
Limbic System
a group of several brain structures located primarily under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.
Thalamus
the part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.
Olfactory Bulbs
the two bulb-like projections of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells.
Hypothalamus
the small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary glands, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.
Hippocampus
the curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term declarative memories.
Amygdala
the brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear.
Cortex
the outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.
Cerebral Hemisphere
the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.
Corpus Callosum
the thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
Occipital Lobe
the section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the primary visual centers of the brain.
Parietal Lobes
the sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, temperature, and body position.
Somatosensory Cortex
the area of cortex at the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.
Temporal Lobe
the areas of the cortex located along the side of the brain, starting just behind the temples, containing the neuron responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.
Frontal Lobe
the areas of the brain located in the front and top, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech.
Motor Cortex
the rear section of the frontal lobe, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.
Mirror Neurons
the neurons that fire when an animal or person performs an action and also when an animal or person observes that same action being performed by another.
Association Areas
the areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.
Broca’s Aphasia
the condition resulting from damage to Broca’s area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
the condition resulting from damage to Wernicke’s area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language.
Spatial Neglect
the condition produced most often by damage to the parietal lobe association areas of the right hemisphere, resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field.
Cerebrum
the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them.
