The Atmopshere

Question 1

How does the atmosphere supplying gases fro natural processes support life?

Answer 1

Atmosphere contains carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen = needed to make the biological molecules used by living organisms, they are extracted from the atmosphere as N2, O2, CO2, H2O
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins all contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, protein also contains nitrogen

Question 2

How does the atmosphere absorbing electromagnetic radiation from the sun support life?

Answer 2

Solar wind is prevented from reaching earth surface due to magnetosphere
UV radiation is mostly prevented by the ozone layer in the stratosphere

Question 3

How does the atmosphere delaying the escape of infrared energy support life?

Answer 3

Most incoming visible light is absorbed, converted to heat and re-emitted as infrared energy, natural occurring greenhouse gases absorb the infrared energy and convert it to heat increase the temperature of the atmosphere, raising the temperature of the Earth in two ways:
- warm atmosphere emits infrared energy which is absorbed by the earths surface
- warm atmosphere reduces heat loss by conduction from land and the oceans

Question 4

How does the atmosphere distributing heat support life?

Answer 4

Most energy from the Sun is absorbed at the Earth surface in tropical regions
-m warm surface heats the atmosphere above and the heat is distributed to higher latitude by warm winds such as southerly winds that bring heat energy to the UK from the Caribbean Sea

Question 5

How does the atmosphere supporting ocean currents support life?

Answer 5

Wind is blowing over the oceans creates currents that distribute heat by carrying warm water from tropical areas to high latitude such as the North Atlantic conveyor
- these currents also distribute dissolved nutrients

Question 6

How does the atmosphere transporting water vapour help to support life?

Answer 6

When is transport water vapour to areas that would otherwise get little to no precipitation

Question 7

What is atmospheric pressure control?

Answer 7

The ease with which water molecules can evaporate and escape from the water surface
If atmospheric pressure was much lower, there would be no liquid water on earth

Question 8

What is the structure of the atmosphere?

Answer 8

In ascending order, it goes troposphere, tropopause, stratosphere, stratopause, mesosphere, mesopause, thermosphere
- as altitude increases pressure decreases
- temp decreases as troposphere increases
- temp increases as stratosphere increases
- temp decreases as mesosphere increases
- temp increases as thermosphere increases

Question 9

What is the natural greenhouse effect?

Answer 9

Visible light passes through the atmosphere easily and is absorbed by the Earth surface which warms up
The womb out surface emits infrared radiation which cannot pass to the atmosphere is easily because this is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Greenhouse gases are any gases that are better absorbing infrared radiation than the average
Without the natural greenhouse effect the temperatures earth surface would be 33° colder than it actually is

Question 10

What is the enhance greenhouse gas effect and global climate change?

Answer 10

Global climate change involves changes in the composition of the atmosphere the alter energy processes, the climate and the physical and biological processes they control
- Human activities are increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases that absorb the infrared radiation and warm up the atmosphere

Question 11

What ecological changes occur due to global climate change?

Answer 11

• Species may be directly affected by temperature or by natural changes to processes that affect them
• Temperature makers plants to grow faster however many plants produce toxins that build up over time which may result in caterpillars being killed earlier
• Precipitation changes may cause wetland habitats to enlarge or shrink
• Oak trees have deep roots to survive drought, unlike beach trees which have shallow roots
• Doormat hibernation may be disturbed by warmer winters causing them to use App Store fat and they may starve before the spring
• Timing of ecological events such as flowering migration and nesting may change therefore survival of interdependent species may be reduced
• distribution of species may change as conditions may be less favourable and colonies will have to migrate

Question 12

How is climate change affecting bats in the UK?

Answer 12

Climate change may affect bats in the UK in positive and negative ways
- Warm assure to winters may increase survival during hibernation, warmer weather may increase the population of food species especially night flying insects
- Weather to storm weather may reduce the time for which bats can feed which may reduce survival

Question 13

How can climate change cause conditions for survival to change and small populations may become isolated?

Answer 13

As sea levels rise and create islands or as temperatures rise an isolated populations retreat upwards to cooler mountain in this areas, smaller populations can cause several problems:
- Smaller gene pool which could increase inter-breeding
- May not have enough breeding males or females

Question 14

How can climate change cause changes in wind pattern?

Answer 14

Jet streams are strong winds that blow from west to east along meandering path in the upper troposphere that caused by the different temperature in density between two air masses such as the warm air in mid latitude and the cold air and polar regions, wind blow to equalise the pressure differences but they do not blow in the straight line due to the Coriolis effect
- If polar regions are warming faster than areas near the equator, the temperature differences that create the jetstream are getting smaller meaning the jet streams in northern hemisphere are moving nearer to the Pole moving more slowly and our following a more meandering path
- The waves created by the meandering parts are called Rossby waves and can carry unusually cold air southwards or warm air northwards
- The slower movement can cause whether the systems to remain over an area creating longer more intense whether such as prolonged droughts or increased rainfall leading to floods

Question 15

How can climate change cause changes in rainfall?

Answer 15

Increase temperatures cause more evaporation, which eventually causes more precipitation in the same area or elsewhere
- With higher temperatures the air may have to move further towards a cold area before the water vapour cause enough to condense and full as rain or snow
- Changes in wind direction in velocity may also affect precipitation by carrying the humid air to new areas causing increased rainfall in one area but reduced rainfall in another

Question 16

How can climate change cause reductions in the amount and duration of snow cover?

Answer 16

High temperatures reduce the amount of ice and snow and the length of time it remains on the ground before it melts
- Less ice or snow cover reduces the albedo of the earth surface so less sunlight is reflected away and more is absorbed causing further heating

Question 17

How can climate change cause changes in the extent and speed of movement of land ice?

Answer 17

Snow falls on land and becomes compacted into ice which gradually flows downhill when the mass is built up sufficiently forming a glacier
- As the moving ice reaches lower altitude, it warms up and melts
- If it reaches the sea before it melts it can produce icebergs
- If it reaches the sea after melting, it will add to river flow
- Warmer temperatures may cause the front end of the glacier to melt faster so the ice front retreats up the valley
- Melt water may flow down through the cracks in the ice and act as a lubricant causing it to move more quickly

Question 18

How can climate change cause loss of ice shelves?

Answer 18

Ice sheets that are grounded on the sea bed block the forward movement of land ice once the ice shelf has broken up the glaciers or ice sheets behind may flow more rapidly towards the sea which can increase sea level to rise

Question 19

How can climate change cause changes in ice thickness and area?

Answer 19

During Arctic and Antarctic winters the area of ice that forms on the sea surface increases as temperatures drop however the area of ice that forms declines as temperatures to rise
- On the other hand areas of sea ice around Antarctica has increased in recent years possibly due to increased freshwater flowing of the land floating on the dense of water and then freezing

Question 20

How can climate change cause changes to ice lakes?

Answer 20

Water produced by melting ice can collect on the surface of glaciers producing ice lakes, if the front ice Wolve the lake melts then the water may be released which can cause sudden flooding
- This is a serious threat in the Himalayas whether a large human populations living in the valleys downstream of the glacier lakes

Question 21

How can climate change cause changes to ice and snow fed rivers?

Answer 21

Warmer conditions may reduce snowfall and increase rainfall. This can affect the river flow patterns.
- Rivers fed by melt water may have a more Evenflo than if they were fed directly by rainwater
- In other areas snow may reduce river flow as a snow accumulates and then causes a big increase in river flow if the climate suddenly warms like spring thaw

Question 22

What two ways can sea levels rise?

Answer 22

• The thermal expansion of seawater = warmer atmosphere heats the water which therefore, this takes ages as water has a high specific heat capacity
• Melting land ice = as the Earth warms up ice will melt land ice increases the volume of seawater

Question 23

How are ocean currents largely driven by processes that occur in the atmosphere?

Answer 23

• Winds is cause surface water to move
• Evaporation caused by warming causes water to flow into replace the water that has evaporated
• Heating or cooling changes the density of surface water which affects the ease with which the surface water sinks
• Changes in solidity caused by evaporation or inflow of freshwater from melted Landais affect water density

Question 24

What is the north Atlantic conveyor?

Answer 24

Involves the movement of layers of surface and deep water in the north Atlantic ocean which distribute heat energy and control the climate
Warm water from the tropical Atlantic Ocean travels north Eastwoods towards north west Europe this is driven by:
- Friction with the prevailing winds blowing over the ocean surface from south to north east
- Water in the north east Atlantic sinks as it causes and becomes dense during water to replace it
The UK is warmed by the north Atlantic conveyor which brings water from tropical regions , preventing the cold weather found in regions of the same latitude E.G. Canada

Question 25

What changes caused to the north Atlantic conveyor caused by global climate change?

Answer 25

Higher atmospheric temperatures cause land ice on green to melt and flow into the sea - This dilute the seawater causing the salt concentration to go down - Less saline water is less dense than normal seawater so is less likely to sink - Reducing the flow rate of the water current which could cause Northwest Europe to become colder

Question 26

What is El Nino?

Answer 26

- Typically occurs every 2 to 7 years - In normal conditions trade winds blow Westwoods across the Pacific Ocean near the equator which moves surface ocean current in the same direction, causing deep cold water to be drawn up near the coast of South America which is rich and nutrients and causes large blooms near the surface which feed a rich food web supporting commercial fisheries and providing food for the human population, as well as more rainfall in Australia then South America - In our new new years the wind direction is reversed alongside the current meaning there’s cold water near Australia and causing drought in Australia, and having warmer water near south America and increased evaporation, therefore rainfall and floods

Question 27

What are the global impacts of El Niño events?

Answer 27

- Droughts in North East Africa, South Africa, Africa, and China - Fewer hurricanes in the north Atlantic - View a tropical cyclones in Japan

Question 28

What is La Niña?

Answer 28

When the winds blow more strongly in the normal direction, so water current speed up and temperature differences between western and East Pacific are increased There is limited scientific agreement on the link between human activities and changes in La Niña events

Question 29

What health impacts are there of climate change? And what is the heat island effect?

Answer 29

Temperatures in some parts of the world are at the upper end of the range of tolerance for humans if climate change raises temperatures a heat wave is more likely to cause health problems People with existing problems such as heart or respiratory disease may be more vulnerable and disease. Vectors may change their distribution as temperatures rise and food poisoning may become more common as pathogens grow more rapidly on unrefrigerated food. The heat Island effect is where urban areas often have raised temperatures due to heat emissions and light absorption by dark surfaces

Question 30

What impacts on water supplies are caused by climate change?

Answer 30

Changes in evaporation, precipitation and river flow may create water supply problems ranging from droughts to floods

Question 31

What impact on food supplies are caused by climate change?

Answer 31

Changes in temperature and water availability may change the crop species that can be grown, reduced water availability may make crop irrigation more important and warmer waters may allow more pests to survive causing more pest damage in the following growing season

Question 32

What impacts on infrastructure are caused by climate change?

Answer 32

- Road heat stress = high temperatures cause melting of the tar causing roads to a form - Track buckling = high temperatures can cause rail track to expand and buckle, before being laid, truck is stretched or heated to reach the length it would expand to at a particular temperature - Drainage = higher rainfall or periods of sudden heavy rain or increased flooding risks - Landslides = heavy rain inward to lock the ground and lubricate soil and rock particles making landslides more likely particularly on deforested hillsides - Bridge damage = high river flow after heavy rain can put pressure on bridge supports especially if objects such as tree trunks hit the bridge or block the archers

Question 33

How is it difficult to monitor timescales and predict climate change?

Answer 33

- short term for example, a storm or wet winter - Long-term for example, a trend of winters with increasing rainfall

Question 34

How do spatial scales make it difficult to monitor and predict climate change?

Answer 34

- local for example, a sudden slow moving storm causing local flooding - Regional for example, an area with increased rainfall due to increased evaporation or changed wind direction - Global for example increased global temperatures due to increased infrared absorption

Question 35

How do interconnected systems make it difficult to monitor and predict climate change?

Answer 35

Interactions between systems operating over different times scales makes it much more difficult to accurately monitor changes and predict how the effects may combine For example, in the UK, the following may occur over different timescales: - Changes in the jetstream may raise temperatures - A slowing of the north Atlantic conveyor a lower temperatures - The underlying trend of increasing greenhouse gases may raise temperatures

Question 36

How do natural fluctuations make it difficult to monitor and predict climate change?

Answer 36

All climatic factors fluctuate because they are influenced by variability and solar output, the earths orbit and changes in the Earth surface caused by previous climate variability - some of the potential changes caused by climate change could occur naturally so it’s difficult to determine whether an event was caused by anthropogenic reasons or not

Question 37

How does time delay between course and effect make it difficult to monitor and predict climate change

Answer 37

There is often a time delay between cause-and-effect for example the atmosphere may warm up quite quickly but it could be a very long time before the worlds oceans reach the same temperature because the volume of the ocean is so great and water has a high specific heat capacity

Question 38

What is historic data collection?

Answer 38

Historic data was collected in the past on atmospheric composition temperature and where the patterns however it can be unreliable due to lack of sophisticated equipment or lack of collection on a global scale

Question 39

What is proxy data collection?

Answer 39

Proxy data involves making an estimate about one factor that can’t be measured by using a related factor which can be measured, of which there are several: - Dendrochronology = where the width of a tree ring shows the growth rate and may indicate the temperature at the time it was laid down - Coral species that produce large coral heads with annual growth rings can be used to estimate past temperatures in the sea - Pollen grains can be preserved in lake sediments, the presence of pollen of particular species indicates the climate that was present when it was produced. This can be determined using radiocarbon dating of organic material in the sediments.

Question 40

What is ice core data?

Answer 40

Annual accumulation of snow buildup into ice layers so deeper layers are older allowing data up to 800,000 years old to be collected - Bubble is trapped in ice provide information on the atmosphere when the bubble became trapped such as carbon dioxide concentration and the ratio of oxygen isotopes which can give information on the temperature when the gas was trapped - Layers in shallow ice are Caira as compaction caused by pressure can make the layers less distinct but radio is is analysis could also be used to estimate the age of the ice - Layers of volcanic ash can be used to compare eyes cause and identify layers of similar age

Question 41

What is satellite data?

Answer 41

Census carried out by satellites are used to collect data on factors such as wind velocity, ocean currents, temperature, wave height, ice cover, ice thickness and vegetation cover - Low earth orbit satellites in altitude of about 800 km can collect detailed information of the whole of the Earth surface allowing the Earth surface to be survived over about 15 days - Satellites in Geo stationary orbit provide less detailed information from 36,000 km above the equator and often used to monitor weather and climactic conditions

Question 42

What is monitoring ocean current data?

Answer 42

Surface currents can be monitored using satellite or buoys and floats at the water surface - deep occurrence can also be monitored by Argo floats which can be programmed to sink at a particular depth for specific durations after which they surface and transmit the data then submerge again - Collecting data on factors such as temperature and salinity and the direction and speed of the wave current

Question 43

What’s our computer model is used for in data collection?

Answer 43

Computer modelling allows into connections and their consequences to be estimated more accurately The model can be continually modified using more data collected and by analysing differences between the predicted and real outcomes

Question 44

What are negative feedback mechanisms? And what are some examples?

Answer 44

Negative feedback mechanisms reduce the size of the original change, they take place when an environmental change causes other changes which decrease the rate of the initial or the level of its impact helping to re-establish the original equilibrium - Increased low-level cloud = higher temperatures increase evaporation which leads to increase condensation and produces more clouds and clouds have a higher albedo so more sunlight is reflected and the amount of warming is reduced - Increased photosynthesis = higher temperatures increases the rate of photosynthesis which removes more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reducing the enhanced greenhouse gas effect

Question 45

What are positive feedback mechanisms? And what are some examples?

Answer 45

Positive feedback mechanisms increase the size of the original change. They take place when an environmental change causes other changes which increase the rate of the initial change or the level of its impact and therefore increase the effect of the original change. - Soil decomposition = if temperature rises the rate of decay may increase an aerobic decomposition by microorganisms will release more carbon dioxide which increases the enhanced greenhouse gas effect - melting permafrost = land areas in Arctic and Antarctic regions may have soil that is waterlogged but permanently frozen warming can cause the frozen soil to defrost releasing the meat gas which is a powerful greenhouse gas - Release of methane hydrate = under high pressure and low temperatures, dead organic matter and deep sea sediments decompose to produce me gas and formed solid methane hydrate, if deep sea water temperatures rise in the methane hydrate may melt releasing methane into the atmosphere

Question 46

What are tipping points? And what are some examples?

Answer 46

Tipping point is the concept that human actions that cause climate change may cause changes in natural processes that themselves cause climate change to the extent that the original human action is no longer needed for climate change to continue in increasing Examples of natural processes that may become unstoppable: - Faster soil decomposition - Release of CO2 by increased forest and peat fires - Snow on land melting caused by increased temperatures reducing the earths albedo

Question 47

How can carbon be stored?

Answer 47

- carbon sequestration which is planting more trees to request a carbon in wood through photosynthesis - Carbon capturing storage which is a developmental technology that may remove carbon dioxide produced by industrial processes such as fossil fuel power stations, the main stages are: - Capture of the carbon dioxide or removal of carbon from the fuel - Transported by road, tanker ship or pipeline - Carbon dioxide storage in depleted oil field, gas fields, aquifers or its use in secondary oil recovery

Question 48

What is geoengineering?

Answer 48

This involves largely uncharted tech technologies that might control natural processes to reduce the anthropogenic greenhouse gas effect, for example: - Painting roofs White to increase their albedo and reflect more light - Adding nutrients to the sea to stimulate planktonic growth - Putting solar shades in orbit to reduce sunlight reaching the Earth Some of these could have unpredictable consequences that could cause environmental damage

Question 49

How can flood control help adapt to climate change?

Answer 49

Flooding caused by rising water levels can be reduced by building higher river banks or coastal defences - If water levels in the river rise above the level of the surrounding land, it would be necessary to pump rainwater from the land up into the rivers OC

Question 50

How can coastal erosion control help adapt to climate change?

Answer 50

A sea level rises coastal erosion rates rise as wave strike the upper short for longer in each tidal cycle A variety of seawall and wave screens are used to protect coasts

Question 51

How can managing retreat help can adapt to climate change?

Answer 51

Some areas of land is so important that flood control measures must be used even if they are expensive - In other areas the cost of flood prevention may be greater than the value of what needs protection so these areas may be abandoned

Question 52

How can urban drainage control help adapt to climate change?

Answer 52

More sudden or increased rainfall may cause flooding when river levels are too high - Permeable urban surfaces = replacing impermeable concrete with permeable services such as gravel or soil reduces flooding in urban areas - River flow management = tributary is flowing into a river increase the water level retaining the water contributes or slowing the flow rate may reduce flooding around the main river, run-off from rural land can be delayed by constructing low soil dams or increase a forest station, as well as maintaining flood planes - Raised buildings = buildings on stilts protects against flooding up to the heights of the stilts - Floating houses = in low lying areas where flooding is common constructing houses on temped floating platforms would protect them from flooding for example in the Netherlands and the river doubt of Bangladesh in India

Question 53

Why is stratospheric ozone so important?

Answer 53

Concentrations in the stratosphere are high. The ozone is approximately located from 12 to 24 km above the Earth surface. It is important because it prevents most of the high energy ultraviolet solar radiation from reaching the Earth surface, including UVA UVB and UVC

Question 54

What are the effects of UVB lighting on living organisms?

Answer 54

If UVB is not absorbed, it will reach the Earth surface and may be absorbed by living cells - The energy of UVB is absorbed and some is converted into chemical energy as it breaks up biological molecules causing skin damage, DNA damage skin cancer, cataracts leaf tissue damage and reduced photosynthesis as well as damage to marine organisms such as algae corals and Platonic organisms

Question 55

What are chlorofluorocarbons?

Answer 55

CFC’s were developed for use in air-conditioning units, refrigerators, as aerosol propellants and the solvents for cleaning electrical equipment, it was their properties that made them ideal: - Boiling points close enough to ambient temperatures that the gases can be liquefied with easily achievable pressure - Ability to dissolve grace and oils but not damage electrical components - Not flammable - Most are non-toxic

Question 56

What is the Rowland-Molina hypothesis?

Answer 56

Two American scientist suggested that the chemical properties of CFC could lead to ozone depletion: - Persistence of CFC’s = CSC are chemically stable so they remain in the atmosphere long enough to be carried up to the stratosphere - Dissociation by UV and the release of chlorine radicals = when exposed to high levels of UV they break the carbon to chlorine bonds and release chlorine free radicals - reaction of chlorine and oxygen = chlorine reacts with one atomic oxygen prevent preventing it forming ozone

Question 57

How can the ozone be measured proving ozone depletion?

Answer 57

Ozone is measured in Dobson units which estimates the total thickness of all of the ozone in the atmosphere as if it existed as a layer of pure ozone at sea level 100 Dobson units is equivalent to 1 mm thick ozone layer , normal ozone levels are about 300 dubs in units and an ozone hole refers to levels below 220 Dobson units

Question 58

How can ozone depletion be measured by ground base data collection?

Answer 58

The detection of higher levels of UV at ground level where evidence of ozone loss in the stratosphere

Question 59

How can satellite surveys provide evidence for ozone depletion?

Answer 59

Satellites orbit the Earth that creates altitude the stratosphere of UV passing downwards through the stratosphere cannot be measured However, readings of UV light reflected by the Earth were higher than expected suggesting ozone levels were reduced

Question 60

How can air samples from the stratosphere provide evidence for ozone depletion?

Answer 60

As I was collected by helium balloons and high flying research aircrafts confirm that the chemicals were causing ozone depletion, especially chlorine and chlorine monoxide

Question 61

How can variability in ozone levels provide evidence for ozone depletion?

Answer 61

The concentration of ozone varies between different areas at different times and at different altitudes Are you saying depletion is most severe between 12 and 24 km where UV light splits ozone molecules releasing monoatomic oxygen that can react with chlorine preventing the reformation of ozone?

Question 62

Why is the ozone depletion over Antarctica unique?

Answer 62

Stress is very temperatures over Antarctica are lower than anywhere else on earth allowing the formation of stress ferric clouds and ice crystals. These provide surfaces on which chemical reactions take place producing chlorine molecules from the chlorine released from CFC is - Winds around Antarctica rotate to create a polar vortex with little mixing between the air over Antarctica and the rest of the atmosphere this maintains lower temperatures and produces higher concentrations of the chlorine that forms on the ice crystals

Question 63

What are the main aspects of the Montréal protocol?

Answer 63

- The manufacturer use of CFC and other ozone-depleting substances was phased out and then banned - The use of HCFC will be phased out by 2030 - Essential uses of some ozone depleting substances are so permitted for example halon fire extinguishers in aircraft - A fund is available to help countries implement the Montréal protocol

Question 64

How can use of alternative processes restore the ozone layer?

Answer 64

Pump action sprays are now used for domestic cleaning products Stick or roll on deodorant

Question 65

How can use alternative materials help restore the ozone layer?

Answer 65

- HCFCs were introduced to replace CFC’s for refrigeration and air-conditioning units. They are less stable and so will not reach the stratosphere. - HFC have replaced HCFCs as they contain no chlorine and do not cause ozone depletion but are more expensive and our greenhouse gases - CFC’s as aerosol repellent have been replaced by hydrocarbon such as propane and butane however are flammable - CFC‘s and asthma inhalers have been replaced with hydrofluoroalkane - A range of alternative are used to replace CFC solvent including alcohols

Question 66

How can save disposal of waste CFC’s help to restore the ozone layer?

Answer 66

Was Tay Tay CFC is from old fridges and air-conditioning units are drained and incinerated, the CFC’s are broken down into carbon dioxide and acidic gases that can be neutralised with crushed lime

Question 67

What causes did the success of the Montréal protocol have?

Answer 67

- International recognition of the serious consequences of ozone depletion - Agreement between nearly every country that action must be taken - The development of alternative processes and materials so the use of most ozone-depleting substances was no longer necessary