The American West Flashcards
How religious were the Plains Indians?
The beliefs of the Plains Indians underpinned everything they did. Their belief in the unity of people and nature, and their profound conviction that humans should work with the power of nature and not try to tame it, influenced the ways in which they adapted to life on the plains.
Sum up the beliefs of the Plains Indians.
They believed in the Great Spirit, who had created the world and ruled over it. They also believed that all living things had spirits of their own which made them holy and worthy of respect, and that even the rocks and streams had spirits. These spirits were very important, as they believed they could influence their lives.
In what way were circles important to the Plains Indians?
They thought that they power of the earth always moved and worked in circles: the circle of the horizon, the circles of the sun and moon, the seasons, round bird nests, round tipis, and life was a circle, beginning with childhood and ending with the old behaving like children
Why was mining or farming, especially on sacred land, such an issue for the Plains Indians?
Because it was sacred land where they took their dead for burial, and where their medicine men went for special guidance. The Plains Indians believed that they came from the earth. and when they died their bodies returned to the earth. In this way, all living thing were part of the land, and so land couldn’t be bought, owned or sold. They believed that the earth was their mother, and so mining/farming was cutting into their mother.
How did the Plains Indians contact the spirit world and the one Great Spirit that flowed through the universe?
Through visions. Boys and girls were given their adult name in ceremonies where they had their first vision. Boys fasted and prayed for several days alone, then told their vision in the sweat lodge.
How were dances important to the Plains Indians?
Whole tribes could contact the spirit world through elaborate and sometimes agonising ceremonies such as the Sun Dance and the Buffalo Dance. By torturing themselves they hoped to bring visions to themselves and their tribes.
How important were the Plains Indians’ Medicine Men?
A Medicine man was important because he could interpret the visions of young men. He was important, too, because he could make contact with the spirits of all living things. Everything he did stemmed from this, and he was vital to the life of the tribe. He also looked after the tribe in practical ways, such as actual medicine.
Why were the Plains Indians generally fit and healthy, and what were the most common health problems?
They were generally fit and healthy because they had very active lives, and the most common health problems were broken limbs and flesh wounds as a result of raiding and war, burns, bruises and grazes from buffalo hunting, fevers and rheumatism from being out in all weathers, and malnutrition when buffalo could not be found.
Why did the Plains Indians believe that accidents and illness happened?
Because they’d been possessed by evil spirits
How did the Plains Indians hunt the buffalo?
Before they had horses, they hunted them on foot, covered in animal skins to disguise their human smell. Sometimes they stampeded a buffalo herd so that the animals were trapped in a valley or tumbled over a cliff.
What happened after a buffalo hunt for the Plains Indians?
When the hunters brought the dead buffalo back to camp, the women and children butchered the carcass. They cut out everything good to eat raw, such as the kidneys, liver and brain. The flesh was then boiled and roasted. Anything left over was sliced into thin strips and smoked or dried in the sun, becoming jerky, which kept for a long time.
Describe the process of making ‘pemmican’.
The women pounded leftover meat into pulp, mixed it with berries and put it into skin containers. They then poured hot grease and marrow fat over the containers, which kept them airtight. Pemmican kept for a long time without going rancid.
The Plains Indians used every part of the buffalo but one. What was this, what did they do with it, and why?
They didn’t use the buffalo’s heart, instead they cut it out and left it on the plains. They believed this gave new life to the herd which had given the Plains Indians so much.
What was the hide of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
The raw hide of the buffalo was used for carrying belongings, and for harnesses and shields. The tanned hide was used for robes, tipi covers, moccasins, bags and leggings.
What was the tail of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
Fly whisks and ornaments
What were the sinews of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
Bowstrings and thread
What were the horns of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
Head-dresses, spoons, powder flasks, cups, and arrow straighteners
What was the skull of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
It was painted and used in religious rituals
What was the tongue of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
A hair brush
What was the fur of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
Blankets, mittens and saddle covers
What was the hair of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
string and stuffing for pillows and saddles
What were the bones of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
knives, bone-fleshing tools and sledge runners
What were the hooves of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
glue and tools
What was the fat of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
soap
What was the dung of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
fuel
What was the bladder of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
food bags
What were the ribs of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
sledges for children in winter
What were the tendons of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
strings, cord and sewing thread
What were the intestines of the buffalo used for by the Plains Indians?
buckets, and cooking vessels
How did the Plains Indians get horses?
There were no horses in America until around the 1600s, when the Spanish conquered the tribes living in Central America, built towns and farmed and bred horses there. They refused to sell the horses, but in 1640, the Pueblo Indians rose up against the Spanish, drove them out and captured their horses. After keeping some for themselves for meat and breeding, they sold the rest to the other tribes.
How did the Plains Indians use horses?
At first, they just traded and sold them. Eventually they realised that they could use them to hunt the buffalo, for transport and for fun. Horses transformed and dominated every aspect of their lives. They were so essential to their way of life, by 1820 individuals measured their own wealth, and that of their tribe, in horses.
Describe the design of a tipi.
It was basically a framework of wooden poles with between 10-20 buffalo skins sewn and stretched over them. The flaps at the top of the tipi could be moved to direct the wind so that the smoke from the fire blew away. The conical design of the tipi meant that it was able to resist the strong winds that blew across the plains.
What did the male and female Plains Indians own?
Women owned everything in the tipi, and the tipi itself. The men owned the horses and their weapons. What no one owned was the land.
Why were tipis such ideal homes for the Plains Indians?
Because they needed to be on the move, following the vast herds of buffalo which were essential for their survival. The tipi could be taken down by the women in less than ten minutes, and two tipi poles attached to a horse formed a travois that carried the family’s belongings over the Plains to their next camp.
What did the male and female Plains Indians do?
The men protected the band against enemies. Once the band was safe, the women were responsible for the tipi and all that that involved, such as feeding and clothing their families.
What happened to elderly Plains Indians?
They were left to starve
How was Indian society organised?
All the different bands in a tribe would usually meet together in the summer for a great tribal camp, when the grass was rich enough to feed their horses, and the Indians could kill all the buffalo they would need.
What’s a warrior society?
Every man belonged to one, and each tribe had its own, with special dress, dances and songs. generally, their role was to protect women and children from attack and supervise the hunting, making sure that not too many buffalo were killed. The band council would always consult its warrior society before making a decision.
Why did the Plains Indians fight?
To young Indian boys, going into battle and winning glory there was the only way to earn respect. He could perhaps enter a warrior society, or even gain a wife. By taking horses and weapons, and capturing women and children, Plains Indians could become wealthy. Their chiefs used warfare as a way of testing their power, and of trying to increase their standing in their tribe or band
Why did Plains Indians not go into war to conquer others or gain territory?
Because they didn’t want to conquer others or gain land; they didn’t believe that anyone could own land. Indian warfare was made up of short raids, made by small groups, in order to capture horses and weapons or for revenge or honour.
What was the Plains Indians’ idea of bravery?
Facing up to responsibilities, i.e. being a good hunter and fighter without taking unnecessary risks that could jeapordise one’s life or the wellbeing of the tribe as a whole.
What was counting coup?
It was touching the enemy with a hand, or a specially decorated stick. This was the greatest honour a warrior could win, especially if their enemy was still alive. The first man to touch an enemy in this way received the highest honour. There were lesser honours for those who were second, third of fourth.
Which two factors did a man’s rank as a warrior depend upon?
His total ‘score’ in coups, and his ability to lead successful raids in which the Cheyenne losses were low.
Why was being scalped in battle one of the worst things that could happen to a Plains Indian?
Because if your enemy had your scalp, he had your spirit. They thought that if a warrior lost his scalp, he could not live beyond death, so to scalp your enemy meant that he would not be in heaven to fight you. When an Indian killed a person in battle, he scalped the person and took the scalp back to camp
Why did wars between tribes occur?
The Indians usually set out to steal horses from neighbouring tribes and bands. This could involve fighting and certainly involved counting coup. Indians also fought to protect their hunting grounds from tribes and bands that might have strayed there accidentally, or deliberately, in search of buffalo or antelope.
Why did many chiefs and elders welcome warfare against other tribes?
Because in war, they could exercise authority over younger braves, who were anxious to win honour or respect and could sometimes get out of control. Warfare was also a way to bring all the bands together so that men, women and children could develop a sense of tribal unity and acknowledge the power and control of the tribal chiefs.
Why do tipis show how well the Indians adapted to living on the plains?
Because they were warm in winter, cool in summer, and made from materials found on the plains. They would be taken down quickly and easily transported by horses. They could be made to house an extended family.
When did the banks collapse in the East?
1837
When was gold discovered in California?
1848
Who were the first white men to cross the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, and why did they do so?
Mountain men and trappers, who trapped beaver and hunted antelope and other animals for their fur. Big companies such as the American Fur Company built trading stations where their agents could buy fur and skins from the trappers and mountain men.
Why were trading trading stations where agents from companies such as the American Fur COmpany could buy fur and skins from the trappers and mountain men known as forts?
Because they could be defended against attack from hostile Indians.
What was the financial panic which lead to many people in the 1840s wondering if a better life could be found out in the West?
In 1837, the boom years of the early 1830s came to an end. Cotton prices fell, banks increased their interest rates on loans, and investors began to panic. many banks collapsed, people lost their savings, businesses failed, and thousands of people losing their jobs, which meant that in some areas, unemployment was as low as 25%. People still with jobs faced wage cuts of as much as 40%
What was the Farming Crisis in the mid-West?
Farmers in the Mississippi valley couldn’t make a profit from selling their wheat because the price of it had collapsed. Many of them faced ruin.
What is the definition of Manifest Destiny?
In the 19th century, Manifest Destiny was a widely held belief in the United States that American settlers were destined to expand throughout the continent. Journalist John O’Sullivan coined the term Manifest destiny when he wrote “And that claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us.”
By 1848, the USA had won the whole of the continent of America from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts and from the Canadian to the Mexican borders. What was their solution to the worry about how to hold on to the aforementioned land?
To fill the land with young men and women that were loyal to the USA
When did the first wagons arrive in Oregon?
After two unsuccessful attempts to get over the Sierra Nevada in 1841 and 1842, the first wagons arrived in Oregon in 1843.
What did the Americans first do to get across the plains to their destination?
1} Migrants crossed a fertile plain of tall prairie grass to the Platte River
After migrants crossed a fertile plain of tall prairie grass to the Platte River [1], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
2} They followed the wide, muddy Platte river into Nebraska where the grass was shorter.
After they followed the wide, muddy Platte river into Nebraska where the grass was shorter [2], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
3} They faced (on the plains) sandstorms, quicksands, rain, hunger, stampeding buffalo and sometimes hostile Indians. They stopped Fort and then at Fort Laramie to rest people and animals, and take on supplies
After they faced (on the plains) sandstorms, quicksands, rain, hunger, stampeding buffalo and sometimes hostile Indians (they stopped Fort and then at Fort Laramie to rest people and animals, and take on supplies) [3], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
4} They climbed into the foothills of the Rockies through Indian territory, where friendly Sioux sometimes traded and acted as guides.
After they climbed into the foothills of the Rockies through Indian territory, where friendly Sioux sometimes traded and acted as guides [4], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
5} They climbed even higher in order to get through South Pass. Dried and stored meat was eaten because there’d be no more buffalo
After they climbed even higher in order to get through South Pass, where dried and stored meat was eaten because there’d be no more buffalo [5], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
6} They split into two groups at Fort Hall, depending on whether they were aiming for Oregon or California, and took more supplies on board (they were about halfway along the trail by then)
After they split into two groups at Fort Hall, depending on whether they were aiming for Oregon or California, and took more supplies on board (they were about halfway along the trail by then) [6], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
7} They hauled their wagons, using chains, ropes and pulleys, over the Blue Mountains (richer migrants paid Indians to ferry them and their wagons across the Dallas River. The poor abandoned their wagons and crossed as foot passengers. They walked the rest of the trail to Oregon)
After they hauled their wagons, using chains, ropes and pulleys, over the Blue Mountains (richer migrants paid Indians to ferry them and their wagons across the Dallas River. The poor abandoned their wagons and crossed as foot passengers. They walked the rest of the trail to Oregon) [7], what did the Americans next do to get across the plains to their destination?
8} They crossed 80km of desert to the Sierra Nevada where they used chains, ropes and pulleys to haul their wagons up and over the mountains and then down into the fertile Sacramento valley.
How long was the route to California in terms of both distance and time?
It was 3,800 km long, and took from April to November (or even December)
According to Official estimates, how many people died on the westward trails between 1840 and 1860?
34000
How did people make sure that they could continue the journey west?
Independence, Missouri, was important to the first migrants because they had their supplies checked there, and waited there for enough wagons to make up a sufficiently sized wagon train.
How many wagons were in most wagon trains?
At least 20
What happened to the Donner party?
-Some wanted to take a ‘shortcut’ proposed by Lance Hastings, most didn’t. They split as such. The Donner brothers decided on the shortcut-The donners suffered badly in the desert, losing 4 wagons and 300 cattle. Due to a quarrel, one man killed another.-They reached the Sierra Nevada late and with little food.–The snows came early, and they found themselves trapped by said snow, on the wrong side of the Sierra Nevada. They decided to dig in for winter.-Conditions worsened. The first death from starvation came 15th December.-15 people (8m, 5f, 2 Indian guides) went to try get help. 4 men froze to death, and were roasted and eaten by their companions. The Indian guides refused to eat human, so were shot and then eaten.-10 January, remaining 9, after 32 days, reached Johnson’s ranch and fetched help.-When the rest of the Donner party was reached by a rescue op, half were dead and those left survived by eating the dead.
What happened as a direct result of gold accidentally being discovered in California [1848]?
Within months, 40,000 men were reported to be crossing the Great Plains, and 60 ships carrying would-be gold miners left ports in America and Europe, including significant numbers of Mexican and Chinese people, bound for California. Many of the men were not miners at all.
By the end of 1848, how many were digging for gold in California?
around 10,000 men
By the end of 1849, how many were digging for gold in California?
Around 90,000 men, nicknamed the forty-niners
What happened to the would-be gold miners [The forty-niners]?
Most didn’t find gold and wandered back home, or drifted from mine to mine. Some, however, did strike gold and became extremely rich indeed. Tales of these lucky few kept men motivated.
Why did mining towns come to be?
The early miners had to live somewhere.
What kind of living standards were there in mining towns?
They were often little more than groups of filthy shack beside a dust road. Dysentery, scurvy and typhoid were common, along with occasional outbreaks of cholera.
How did miners waste their money when not working?
At local saloons, where they could gamble and drink al day, and where some prostitutes charged as much as $400 per night
How did some mining towns become permanent after the mid-1850s, and why?
By then, the surface gold was almost exhausted, and the ‘forty-niners’ were departing, replaced by professional miners. As many of them had worked in tin and gold mines in Cornwall, they were able to sink and work deep mines. Backed by businessmen who put money into machinery and mills, gold mining became a profitable industry.
What was claim-jumping?
Stealing one man’s claim to a mine after gold had been discovered there. It was the most common crime in the mining towns, and oft led to murder.
How was law and order kept, at first, in the mining towns?
The miners set up their own courts, which dispensed rough justice and were often corrupt
When the professional miners moved in with their families and the towns became permanent, how was law and order kept in the mining towns?
Town meetings chose a chairman and officers, and claims to mines had to be recorded. Sheriffs were appointed to arrest criminals, and a court of miners decided on guilt or innocence, and subsequent punishments. However, trials were quick and rarely fair. As, sometimes, the courts couldn’t keep up with the level of lawlessness, this lead to vigilante justice.
Who were vigilantes?
Ordinary citizens who had set up vigilance committees, in which they took the law into their own hands. This did work well at first, in some cases, but before long, people began to fear the vigilantes themselves; it was far to easy to execute someone who got on the wrong side of an influential citizen.
Name three things which were a direct result of the discovery of gold in the West.
-An increase in the supply of money for, and encouraged investment in, the mining industry.-The rapid growth of San Fransisco-A railroad being built across America, going to California-The wealth created giving the USA a leading role in world trade.-The stimulation of movement west in the 1850s
What were the problems with the discovery of gold in the West?
NAME?
Who was Joseph Smith?
The son of a poor farmer from Vermont who claimed that in 1823 he dug up some golden plates from a mountain in Palmyra, NY. He said he’d been guided by an angel, Moroni, who helped him translate the mysterious writing on them, which supposedly said that whomever found said plates would restore the church of Jesus Christ in America and build up God’s kingdom on earth ready for Christ’s second coming.
Joseph Smith started with only 5 followers, who were called Mormons, but by 1830, what had he achieved?
He had several hundred people joining his Church of Latter Day Saints
What happened to the Mormons in NY?
They became very unpopular; priests denounced them as blasphemous and newspaper accused Joseph Smith of fraud. Mobs attacked Smith’s home, and Mormons were shot at in the street.
What was the Mormon practice which most made them unpopular?
polygamy
What did the Mormons do in Ohio 1831-37?
-bought land and built farms and homes in Kirtland.-Opened a store, temple, mill and printing press-Became prosperous-Outnumbered non-Mormons-Set up a bank that failed during the national banking crisis of 1837
How did people react to the Mormons being in Ohio 1831-37?
NAME?
What did the Mormons do in Missouri 1837-38?
-Bought land and built farms and communities mainly in Caldwell country-Became prosperous-Were friendly with Plains Indians-Wanted to free slaves-Set up a secret police force [The Danites]
How did people react to the Mormons being in Missouri 1837-38?
NAME?
What did the Mormons do in Illinois 1838-46?
-Rebuilt the decaying town of Commerce-Renamed Commerce ‘Nauvoo’ and made it a prosperous community-Practiced polygamy-Criticised Joseph Smith for ‘being a dictator’-Chose Brigham Young as their leader-Joseph Smith announced his intention to run for election for President
How did people react to the Mormons being in Illinois 1838-46?
-Governor of Illinois granted Nauvoo a charter-Became afraid that they’d become outnumbered by Mormons-Mobs assaulted and killed Mormons.-Smith was imprisoned and killed by a mob.-Governor cancelled Nauvoo’s charter-Governor told Mormons to leave Illinois-Brigham young organised emigration
What was Brigham Young’s first job as leader?
He had to organise the move of 1,500 men, women and children into dangerous, unknown territory. He needed to make sure that they survived the unexpected journey, for which they were poorly prepared. They were travelling 2,250km, leaving US territory and heading for the Great Salt Lake, a harsh land in which nobody else wanted to settle.
What did Young do to move the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake?
NAME?
Describe the first few months after the first Mormons arrived at the Great Salt Lake.
Many died from cold and hunger, and grasshoppers devoured the summer’s crops. Water was a problem as the water in the Salt Lake was useless
How did Brigham Young turn the unpromising land at the Great Salt Lake into a flourishing state?
He had total control over his community, as the obeyed him without question. One of the first decisions he made was that nobody owned and land, water or timber. Instead, it would all be fairly allocated by the Mormon church. The streams supplying the lake weren’t salty, and so the Mormons dug a main irrigation ditch from them through the farmland; side dicthes were dug so that all land could be irrigated. People were given exact times at which they could draw water from the main irrigation ditch.
How was land allocated in Salt Lake City and the surrounding area?
The Temple and the Temple square were in the centre of the city. Around the square, wide streets marked off blocks of land all the same size. These were each divided into eight pots for houses and gardens. Each family got a plot. Five acre plots were gven to the young artisans and mechanics who had little time to work on the land. Ten acre plots were given to those with small family, or to the elderly whose children had left home. Farms between ten and eighty acres went to larger families.
In Salt Lake City, who got five-acre plots?
Young artisans and mechanics who had little time to work on land.
In Salt Lake City, who got ten-acre plots?
Those with small families, or elderly couples whose children had left home
In Salt Lake City, who got farms between ten and eighty acres?
larger families
What was Brigham Young’s plan after Salt Lake City was established?
That Mormons should spread throughout Utah. He had every part of the territory surveyed in order to find out where it would be possible to farm. Once an area was found to be suitable, a town was marked out and irrigation ditches dug, and settlers were chosen to make sure that there were a balance of skills, ages and occupations.
How did Brigham Young encourage emigration to Utah?
He set up a Perpetual Emigration fund to provide money for poor Mormons living elsewhere in America and in Europe to make the journey, bringing with them the range of skills needed. The response was tremendous, with 32,894 converts ready to leave England alone by the end of 1852. They were given a complete financial package to help them get to Utah, and they would repay the money once in Utah.
How was it that the Mormons could afford the Perpetual Emigration Fund?
Because of their self-sufficiency. Mormon territory had been set up in such a way that they needed to buy in very little in he way of goods or raw materials, meaning any surplus money could go into the fund.
What was the first step that Brigham Young took to become politically independent?
He applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called ‘Deseret’ in 1848. However, The US government allowed Mormon lands to only have territory status, and it had to be called Utah after the Ute Indians who lived there. It wasn’t as large as they wanted, and had no port.
After he applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called ‘Deseret’ in 1848, a request which resulted in territory status, and the name ‘Utah’, what happened with Brigham Young’s plan to achieve political independence?
The US government appointed Young as the first governor of the new state of Utah. But, though laws were made in Washington and not by the Mormons, Young started using the Danites to crush oppositions from non-Mormons.
After he applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called ‘Deseret’ in 1848, a request which resulted in territory status, and the name ‘Utah’, the US government appointed Young as the first governor of the new state of Utah. But, though laws were made in Washington and not by the Mormons, Young started using the Danites to crush oppositions from non-Mormons. What then happened with Brigham Young’s plan to achieve political independence?
In 1857, the US government sent a non-Mormon governor to Utah long with 1,500 soldiers to enforce federal rule. However, a massacre of migrants led to the Mormons blaming the Indians and the non-Mormons blaming the Danites. Tension mounted until the US government suddenly decided to try reaching a peaceful settlement with the Mormons.
After he applied to the US government for the Mormon lands around the Great Salt Lake to become a state called ‘Deseret’ in 1848, a request which resulted in territory status, and the name ‘Utah’, the US government appointed Young as the first governor of the new state of Utah. But, though laws were made in Washington and not by the Mormons, Young started using the Danites to crush oppositions from non-Mormons. Then, in 1857, the US government sent a non-Mormon governor to Utah long with 1,500 soldiers to enforce federal rule. However, a massacre of migrants led to the Mormons blaming the Indians and the non-Mormons blaming the Danites. Tension mounted until the US government suddenly decided to try reaching a peaceful settlement with the Mormons. What then happened with Brigham Young’s plan to achieve political independence?
The US government agreed to let the Mormons live their own lives in their own way without interference. However, Utah couldn’t become a state until the Mormons agreed to ban polygamy. In return, the Mormons agreed to a non-Mormon governor, and banned polygamy in 1890.
What was the solution which the US government found in response to the following worries: Mexico would become strong enough to challenge the American hold on Texas and California, France regretting the sale of Louisiana, and Great Britain trying to alter the Canadian border?
To fill the ‘empty’ land with white Americans. These men and women, they argued, would build homesteads and towns, railways and roads, would farm, mine and trade, and would help to make the USA strong, prosperous and able to defy any enemies. They ignored the fact that the lands over which the wagon trains were moving were the hunting grounds of the Indians.
In the 1840s, there were four main areas which the American government wanted to see settled: Texas, California, Oregon and The Great Plains. Describe the state of Texas at the time.
To the south of the Great Plains, Texas had been part of the Mexican Republic until the 1830s. In the revolution of 1835-6, American settlers had won their independence. However, it wasn’t until 1845 that Texas became a state in the USA/ Until then, it was the ‘Lone Star Republic’, with its own government.
