the american west Flashcards

migration and early settlement.

1
Q

what encouraged people to migrate west

A

economic condition/gold rush of 1849/farmland in oregon/the oregon trail/manifest destiny.

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2
Q

economic conditions.

A

From 1837 to the mid-1840s, there was
an economic crisis in the East and
South. Banks collapsed, and people
lost their jobs, businesses and savings.
Many looked to start a new life in a
new part of the USA.

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3
Q

The Gold Rush of 1849

A

In 1849, 100,000 people left the East for
California because gold had been
discovered there.
Most of these prospectors did not become
very rich, and often settled as farmers.
California’s population and economy grew,
as the government had hoped. This helped
the USA’s economy recover.

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4
Q

Farmland in Oregon

A

People were drawn to the excellent farming
land in Oregon (especially with the tough
economic conditions in the East).
The government encouraged people to move
to Oregon in the 1840s. In 1841 they funded
an expedition by John Fremont to map the
Oregon Trail and convince people that the
move was achievable.

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5
Q

The Oregon Trail

A

the Oregon Trail was a route across
Indian Territory and through the Rocky
Mountains to Oregon.
It was the main route used by migrants
to the West – 400,000 people used it
until it was replaced by the First
Transcontinental Railroad in 1869.
The first migrants to travel the Oregon
Trail with a covered wagon were
missionaries in 1836. They went there to
convert American Indians to Christianity.
In 1843 a group of 900 made the journey
(the “Great Emigration”).

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6
Q

The Process of Migration

A

The Oregon Trail began at the Missouri River
and ended in Oregon. It was 3200km long and
the journey was a major challenge.
Those who split off to head to California had an
even longer journey.

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7
Q

Challenges
for Migrants

A

-enough
food and essentials with them
to survive. Most lived on salt
pork.
-Cholera (migrants used the same rivers
for drinking water and going to the
toilet).
-Oxen (used to pull the wagons)
were very slow.
-At least 20,000 people are thought
to have died along the Trail, many
from drowning and accidents.
-It was best not to begin the
journey until April, so that
there would be grass for their
animals to feed on.

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8
Q

Who were The Donner Party

A

In May 1846 a group of 300 migrants in 60 wagons, led by the Donner brothers, started on the
Oregon Trail. They were well-equipped but had more women, children and elderly people than usual

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9
Q

TDP- july 1846

A

At Fort Bridger in the
Rocky Mountains, the
group split. Around 80 of
the migrants decided to
try a shortcut described
in a guidebook by
Lansford Hastings. They
didn’t know that
Hastings never actually
tried the route.

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10
Q

TDP- july to nov 1846

A

The “shortcut” was a mistake:
there was no established
route through and the ground
was rocky and steep. There
were no tested river
crossings, no forts where they
could restock, and often no
grass for the animals. They
argued about whether to go
back.

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11
Q

TDP- nov 1846

A

Snowstorms
trapped the
group in the
Sierra Nevada
Mountains. The
livestock died,
food ran out and
the migrants
began to starve
to death.

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12
Q

TDP- feb 1847

A

Rescuers from
California
reached the
Donner Party.
Only half of the
group was alive
and many had
been forced to
eat those who
had died.

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13
Q

The Mormon migration, 1846-7

A

The Mormons were a religious group who were forced to move from state to state because
other Christians disliked some of their beliefs, e.g. polygamy (having more than one wife).
In 1845 the Mormons were forced to leave Illinois when their leader and founder
Joseph Smith was murdered.
Their new leader Brigham Young believed God wanted them to migrate to Salt Lake
Valley, Utah. It was south of the Oregon Trail and outside US territory at the time.

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14
Q

The journey was very well-planned:

A

 Before they left, Young counted how many people and wagons there were.
 Young researched the route by speaking to explorers and trail guides.
 To avoid arguments, Young was very strict and everyone had a specific role.
 Young planned regular rests along the route, to stop everyone becoming exhausted.
 The migrants were divided into smaller groups, so everyone knew what to do if they got split up.

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15
Q

the mormon journey-omaha feb-june 1846

A

The Mormons were forced to begin their
migration in February, when the weather
was still very cold.
When they reached Omaha it was too
late in the year to begin the trail, so they
waited and spent another harsh winter
at Omaha.

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16
Q

The Mormons’ journey-Great Salt
Lake
April-June
1847

A

In April 1847 Young led a small advance
party of about 150 Mormons on the
2000km journey to the Salt Lake Valley.
They left the Oregon Trail and took the
route used by the Donner Party.
Just as Young finished the journey,
another wagon train of 1500 Mormons
was setting off from Omaha. Thanks to
the advance party this group had a clear
route to follow.
From 1847-69 70,000 Mormons followed
the Mormon Trail to the Salt Lake Valley.

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17
Q

The Mormons managed to
successfully settle in the Salt
Lake Valley because…

A

-Young’s group made the journey
easier for the next migrants by
noting water sources, setting up river
crossings and planting vegetables
along the way.
-Everyone obeyed Young. The Church
owned all land and everyone worked
together for the community.
-They built irrigation systems from
freshwater streams so that they could
grow crops.
-New Mormon settlements spread
away from the Valley, to areas with
better water supplies. Each produced
a different product, e.g. timber

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18
Q

White Settlement Farming

A

Many migrants settled and set up farms
in the West. Oregon and California were
especially good for farming.
By the 1850s people were also settling on
the Great Plains. In 1854, the
government created two new territories,
Kansas and Nebraska, behind the
Permanent Indian Frontier.

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19
Q

why did white settlers face problems

A

No white people had ever farmed the Plains before

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20
Q

problem 1=Low rainfall
and few rivers

A

No rivers for
transporting goods
 Not enough water
for animals
 Frequent droughts
 Too dry for many
crops

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21
Q

problem-Few
trees

A

No timber for
houses and fences
 Houses had to be
made of earth
(sod houses)
 No wood for
cooking and
heating

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22
Q

problem-Extreme
climate

A

Crops died in very
hot summers
 Tough ground
was hard to
plough
 Hailstorms and
lightning fires
 Tough living
conditions

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23
Q

problem-Grasshoppers

A

Swarms would
invade the Plains
 They destroyed
crops and grass
 Their droppings
polluted water
sources

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24
Q

Plains Indians were suspicious of white people because:

A

Resources were scarce on the Plains. New settlers threatened their food
supply.
 The migrant trails disrupted their buffalo hunting.
 The migrants’ oxen ate the grass that was needed for the Indians’ livestock
and hunting.

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25
White settlers were suspicious of Plains Indians because:
They sometimes got caught up in tribal conflicts, and thought the Indians were attacking them.  They thought the Indians were an inferior race who would be wiped out.  Indians sometimes stole their cows and horses.
26
The Fort Laramie Treaty (1851)
In 1851 the government organised the Fort Laramie Treaty to try to solve the conflict between Plains Indians and white settlers. Its aims were to:  Agree on fixed territories for each tribe  End conflicts between the tribes  Guarantee safe access for white migrants across the Plains
27
In the fornt laramie Treaty (1851), Plains Indians agreed to behave in a certain way in return for protection and money from the government:
plains indians had to- end fighting between tribes -Allow migrants to travel through their land safely -Allow railroad surveyors to enter their land safely -Allow the government to build roads and army posts on their land -Pay compensation if their tribe broke the treaty in return the government would-Protect them from white settlers -Pay tribes an annuity (yearly payment) of $50,000
28
Problems with the 1851 fort laramie Treaty-Choosing council representatives
The government wanted one chief from each tribe at the talks, but Indian society didn’t work this way. Just because one chief had signed the treaty, it did not mean that every band would follow it.
29
Problems with the 1851 fort laramie Treaty-Getting representatives from every tribe
Some tribes didn’t attend. Many of those who did were only there for the government food and gifts.
30
Problems with the 1851 fort laramie Treaty-Agreeing boundaries
Plains Indians didn’t believe in fixed boundaries and land ownership. The agreed boundaries were not taken seriously. Some Plains Indians still hunted in other tribes’ territories.
31
Problems with the 1851 fort laramie Treaty-Language barrier
The Treaty was in English, so not all the tribes understood it. The language and cultural differences meant that many of the Indians didn’t know what they’d signed.
32
Significance of the Treaty-It restricted Plains Indians to fixed areas of land…
…thus paving the way for reservations.
33
Significance of the Treaty-It allowed white migrants to cross into Indian Territory…
…thus undermining the Permanent Indian Frontier, and leading to greater white settlement of the Plains.
34
Significance of the Treaty-It made Plains Indians dependent on resources received from the government…
…thus taking away Plains Indians’ independence.
35
Lawlessness in Early Settlements
The American West had laws, but there were problems in making people obey them. Until the 1840s, migrant communities were very small and so there was little lawless behaviour. However, the California Gold Rush caused mass migration – in 1846 there were about 8000 nonIndians in California; by 1855 it was 300,000. Soon the existing California law systems were unable to cope with the number of people living there
36
Impact of the Gold Rush-violence and tension
There was violence and tension between the different ethnicities and religions in mining camps.
37
Impact of the Gold Rush-‘Claim jumping’
‘Claim jumping’ was common, where men would try to steal someone else’s claim if it looked promising
38
Impact of the Gold Rush-Prostitution and alcohol
Prostitution and alcohol in the camps caused violent fights over women.
39
Impact of the Gold Rush-‘Salting a claim’
‘Salting a claim’: conmen would scatter a few flakes of gold on a worthless piece of land and then con a migrant into buying it.
40
Impact of the Gold Rush-Road agents
Road agents were criminal gangs who waited outside camps to rob prospectors.
41
Gangs
By 1850 many prospectors had found what gold they could, and mining companies moved in to mine the area properly. San Francisco’s population boomed because of -  former prospectors arriving in search of other jobs  Chinese migrants arriving following a famine in China Many could not find work and there was a crime wave in 1851. Rival gangs controlled areas of the city. Murder, theft and corruption was common.
42
Racism in the West
Chinese miners were only allowed to work old claims  In California, Chinese miners were taxed more heavily  White people were encouraged to murder Californian Indians Racist crimes weren’t dealt with. American Indians, Chinese and black people weren’t allowed to be court witnesses in California.
43
Tackling Lawlessness
The federal government decided the laws for each territory. (A territory could not become a state until it had a population of 60,000.) However, these laws were often not very effective.
44
Tackling Lawlessness-US Marshal
Each territory had a US Marshal who was in charge of law enforcement. He could appoint deputies and order a posse (group of men) to help him hunt down criminals.
45
Tackling Lawlessness-sheriff
Communities could also elect a sheriff to keep the peace in their county.
46
Law enforcement was hard because:
Territories were huge, which made them very hard to control.  Law enforcers were badly paid, so it was hard to recruit them and many took bribes.  Sheriffs had no legal training so did not always act fairly.
47
Tackling Lawlessness-Vigilance committees
Many people took the law into their own hands. Groups of vigilantes would capture, try and punish suspected criminals. Vigilante committees were effective but often unfair. A suspect’s guilt was usually decided before they were captured. Lynching was common.
48
Tackling Lawlessness-Settling claim disputes
Mining communities would agree their own set of rules, and set up their own court and judge. A recorder was chosen to write down all the claims made in the district, and who had made them.
49
American Civil War (1861-65)
conflict between the northern states (the Union) and the southern states (who broke away to form the Confederacy).
50
The Homestead Act (May 1862)
encouraged more people to settle and farm in the West. The government offered 160-acre plots of land called homesteads – a house with enough land to support a family.
51
The Homestead Act-details
Registering for a homestead plot cost $10, so it was affordable for ordinary people (e.g. ex-slaves).  Homesteaders had to live on and work the land themselves, and there was a limit on how many claims one person could file. The government didn’t want rich businessmen buying up all the land for profit.  As long as they were the head of a family, or single and over-21, anyone could file a claim for a plot. American Indians could not.  Once someone had lived on and worked the land for 5 years, they could buy it outright for $30 (known as “proving up”).
52
The Homestead Act-Achievements:
By 1876, over 6 million acres of government land had become homesteads.  Parts of the Plains were settled for the first time.  In Nebraska, the population grew so much that it became a state in 1867.  It encouraged immigration from Europe.
53
The Homestead Act-Limitations:
Only 16% of public land was homesteaded. Far more was sold to railroads or cattle ranchers.  60% of homesteads were never “proved up”.  More homesteads were formed by railroad companies and squatting than by the Homestead Act.  Rich landowners still found ways to abuse the system: e.g. by filing claims in employees’ names.  Many people filed claims in order to sell it on for a profit afterwards.
54
homesteaders faced challenges:
They needed savings of around $1000 to get started  They quickly ran out of money during spells of no rain These problems were made easier by several factors.
55
Tackling the Problems of Homesteading-Railroads
The railroads made homestead life easier because:  Homesteaders could visit relatives more easily  People could order products  They created towns where people could trade and socialise
56
Tackling the Problems of Homesteading-New inventions
Windmills (1854) were used to pump water out of the ground for crops.  Barbed wire (1874) was used to fence off crops from livestock.  Sulky ploughs (1875) were able to plough the tough Plains ground.
57
Tackling the Problems of Homesteading-New crops
A religious group called the Mennonites found that “Turkey Red” wheat grew well in Kansas, leading to excellent grain exports. They had emigrated in 1873 from Russia, where they had farmed similarly tough land.
58
The Timber Culture Act (1873)
Homesteaders could claim a further 160 acres of land if they agreed to plant trees on a quarter of it. Trees were important because they acted as a wind break and provided timber for building and fuel.By 1878, 16m acres of land had been claimed under this act. However, in most cases the trees died because there wasn’t enough water. People also claimed land only to sell it on for profit.
59
The Pacific Railroad Act (July 1862)
The Pacific Railroad Act encouraged transcontinental railroad building. The government wanted to connect the agricultural West to the big northern cities.  The Union Pacific started in Nebraska and built west;  The Central Pacific started in California and built east. The two ends met at Promontory Point, Utah, in May 1869.
60
The Pacific Railroad Act (July 1862)-Challenges
Building a 2000km railway was difficult and expensive. No private company would risk taking it on. Disagreements - the North wanted to connect California with its big cities (e.g. Chicago) but the South wanted the railway to come through the southern states.
61
The Pacific Railroad Act (July 1862)-Solutions
The government loaned each company $16,000 for every mile of track built ($48,000 for mountain areas).  They also gave the companies large areas of public land along the railroad for them to sell -After the southern states left the Union in 1861, the northern states could decide where the railroad went. They chose a route from Sacramento, California to Omaha, Nebraska.
62
The new railroad was called the
First Transcontinental Railroad.
63
Impact of the railroads-Settlers & Farmers
-Farmers could transport crops to sell in the big Eastern cities -Encouraged European immigration – each company had a Bureau of Immigration -Settlers could buy products from the cities -Made travelling West quicker and cheaper -Towns along the route grew rapidly
64
Impact of the railroads-National impacts
Integrated western territories into the East Many felt “Manifest Destiny” was achieved -Increased trade - economic benefits
65
Impact of the railroads-Plains Indians
-Plains Indians moved away from rail route -Declining buffalo numbers – the tracks destroyed grassland and brought hunters -Indian attacks on railroad builders led to conflict with the Army -Allowed even more white settlers to invade Plains Indian land
66
Impact of the railroads-Cattle industry
Growth of the cattle industry – cattlemen could now move and sell cattle in the big cities
67
Impact of the railroads-Problems of Law and Order
The first new towns created by the railroads were known as “Hell on Wheels”. Lawlessness was worst in cow towns – especially after pay day, when cowboys would celebrate in saloons and brothels. Thomas Smith was the marshal of Abilene, Kansas. He successfully banned guns – until he was murdered in 1870. Smith’s replacement was sacked because he was useless, and the town leaders decided to just ban cowboys from the town.
68
Impact of the Civil War-Problems of Law and Order
After the Civil War many ex-soldiers came to the West. Many of them were unable to find work, and so they formed outlaw gangs. The Reno Gang carried out several large train robberies in the 1860s. They were eventually caught by the Pinkerton National Detective Agency – but shortly after their arrests they were lynched by a vigilante mob.
69
The cattle industry after the Civil War
Things were good in the North…  There was high demand for beef. A cow was worth $40.  Meat production had been industrialised, so it was quicker and cheaper. However, in the South…  There was little demand for cows.  Beef prices had dropped. A cow was worth $5.  The Longhorn cattle in Texas had gone half-wild, having been left unmanaged during the war.
70
Joseph McCoy and Abilene (1867)
In 1867, the railroad reached Abilene, Kansas. A cattle trader called Joseph McCoy had an idea: Abilene would make an ideal transit point for cattle drives…  McCoy bought 450 acres of land at Abilene and built stockyards, a rail depot and a hotel.  He then spent $5000 on marketing to promote Abilene. The venture was a success. Abilene became the first major cow town and McCoy became very rich. Between 1867-72, 3 million cattle were driven along the Chisolm Trail to Abilene.
71
The Goodnight-Loving Trail (1866)
The Goodnight-Loving Trail was established by Charles Goodnight and Oliver Loving to sell cattle directly to reservations and forts in the West.  In 1866 they drove 2000 cattle to Fort Sumner - the American Indians there were close to starvation because of poor government planning.  They sold 800 of the cattle for $12,000 (a much better price than they would get in Texas), and Loving then sold the remaining 1200 to businessman John Iliff in Colorado.  Loving was killed by Comanche Indians in 1867. Goodnight later made a successful deal with John Iliff to transport cattle all the way to Wyoming on the Union Pacific Railroad.
72
Colorado Territory
In 1861 Colorado Territory was created. There was a great demand for meat in Denver City, but until 1870 it had no railroad connection
73
The “beef bonanza”
In the 1870s the beef industry thrived. Cattle ranching on the Plains grew. The industry was dominated by very rich cattle barons who owned enormous ranches. These men also controlled local politics to defend their own interests.
73
John Iliff – Ranching on the Plains (1870)
 John Iliff realised that if he could keep a herd of cows on the Plains, he could supply beef to the Colorado mining towns without having to drive the cattle up all the way from Texas.  Iliff created a massive ranch (a farm for raising cattle) on the Colorado Plains, with a herd of 26,000 cattle.  In 1872 he won a contract to supply beef to 7000 Sioux Indians. He became Denver’s first millionaire.  This marked the start of open range ranching – where cattle roamed freely across large areas of the Plains
74
Ranchers V. Homesteaders
Ranching needed lots of land (at least 2000 acres), so ranchers used public land. When the Homestead Act came in, ranchers used several tactics to block homesteading on their land.
75
Ranchers V. Homesteaders-details
ranchers-filed claims under the Homestead Act for the best bits of land - the areas with springs and waterholes. Ranchers divided the land so that ranches and public land was all mixed together – making the public land impossible to access.  They got relatives and employees to claim homesteads, then hand over the rights to them  They took homesteaders to court, knowing they wouldn’t be able to pay the court costs.  They threatened homesteaders and accused them of stealing cows.
76
Ranchers annoyed homesteaders because Homesteaders annoyed ranchers because
Ranchers annoyed homesteaders because their cattle often wandered onto fields and ate crops. Homesteaders annoyed ranchers because (it was claimed) their sheep ate all the grass and spread disease. Ranchers put up fences to keep out sheep, but homesteaders would just cut them. Long-running conflicts often developed into range wars between ranchers and homesteaders.
77
Cowboys-Life on the long drive
 Cowboys worked in outfits led by a trail boss.  Herd owners would hire an outfit to deliver their cattle by an agreed time. Cattle drives could take several months.  Each outfit had about 12 cowboys, a chuck wagon (food wagon) and a wrangler (who cared for the horses).  There were many challenges and risks, such as stampedes, outlaw gangs and crossing Indian territory. Cowboys slept in the open, taking turns to stay up and keep guard.
78
Cowboys-Life on the ranch
Many ranches didn’t employ cowboys over the winter, so they sometimes got other jobs (e.g. barmen). Some stayed on to repair equipment and plan ahead.  In early spring cowboys had to round up the cattle. Cattle were branded to show which ranch they belong to.  Life on the ranch was hard work, so cowboys were usually young. Cowboys lived together in a bunkhouse on the ranch.  Ranches often has strict rules, e.g. no gambling.
79
Advantage of ranching on the Plains:
Ranches on the Plains were much closer to railheads. This meant that cattle drives only took days, rather than months.
80
Disadvantage of ranching on the Plains:
The Plains had harsh winters that Texas did not. Cowboys had to deal with ice and blizzards, and often spent lonely winters staying in sod houses or cabins out on the ranches.
81
Changes for Plains Indians-Railroads
 Under the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty tribes had to let railroad surveyors onto their land.  Railroads took away Indians’ land and disrupted the buffalo.  The government “extinguished” any Indian rights to land along the rail routes.  Some tribes (e.g. the Pawnee tribe in 1870) agreed to move onto reservations.  The Northern Pacific Railroad caused conflicts.
82
Changes for Plains Indians-Cattle industry
As cattle numbers increased, buffalo numbers decreased.  Because they could no long hunt buffalo, some Indians worked as cowboys – this took them away from their traditional way of life.  Cattle trails went through Indian land, leading to conflict with cowboys.  Many tribes would demand payment from cowboys to pass through their land.
83
Changes for Plains Indians -Gold prospecting
In California, gold prospectors murdered Indians who were in the way of possible gold claims.  Immigration from all over the world brought new diseases which killed many Indians.  New towns developed. Their Western culture was totally alien to Indians.  When gold was found in Montana in 1862, thousands travelled there along the Bozeman Trail, despite it being Lakota Sioux hunting ground (this went against the Fort Laramie Treaty)
84
Government Policy to Plains Indians-reservations.
The government continued to move Plains Indians onto reservations. They promised that Plains Indians would:  Not lose any more land  Be protected from attack by whites  Be given yearly payments (money/food/equipment) Some tribes moved because they had no other choice – it was the only way for them to survive. The government’s promises sounded good, but tribes soon realised they were rarely carried out. Many had to be forced onto reservations by the US Army.The government thought reservations would be good for Plains Indians, because they could learn about farming, Christianity and white American values. However, they had serious negative impacts:
85
Impact of reservations
-They showed no understanding of Indian culture. Indians were taken a long way from their sacred places, and often put with their enemies. -Indians were given the poor land that whites didn’t want. Farming was very difficult. They often relied on food from the government. -White settlers complained about the size of reservations. The government used any excuse to reduce their size. -The agents who ran reservations (on behalf of the Bureau of Indian Affairs) were often corrupt.
86
President Grant’s Peace Policy (1868)
In 1868 President Ulysses S. Grant put forward a Peace Policy to calm tensions between Plains Indians and the Army.  Corrupt reservations agents were replaced with Quakers, who were known for being fair and peaceful.  Ely Parker was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs.  A $2m budget was given to properly care for Indians.  Parker pushed for more radical change. He wanted Indians to be treated as wards, meaning the government should decide what was best for them and treat them well if they obeyed.
87
Little Crow’s War (1862)-events
In August 1862 the starving Dakota Sioux raided Agency buildings for food and supplies, then burned them down. -They also attacked settler towns and army forts, killing around 600 white people (including women and children). -400 Dakota Sioux warriors were arrested, and 38 hanged. The rest were moved to even poorer reservations. -Bounties were offered for the scalp of any Dakota Sioux found in Minnesota. Little Crow was shot, scalped and beheaded in 1863.
88
Conflict with the Plains Indians Little Crow’s War (1862)
Little Crow was a chief of a band of the Dakota Sioux tribe in Minnesota. The Dakota Sioux bands had agreed to move to two small reservations in 1851. They had given up 24m acres of land in return for $1.4m, plus a payment of $80,000 every year.However, the small reservations didn’t have enough food to survive and the government stalled its payments and food supplies. This was because the Dakota Sioux had $200,000 of debts with traders that it refused to pay – in 1858 they were made to sign away half of their reservation to settle the debts.
89
Conflict with the Plains Indians-The Sand Creek Massacre (1864)
In the Treaty of Fort Wise (1861) the Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs agreed to move to a reservation in Colorado, but many of the young warrior brotherhoods (called the Dog Soldiers) rejected it. They often fought with gold prospectors who crossed their land. Black Kettle was a Cheyenne chief.
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The Sand Creek Massacre (1864)-events
On November 29th 1864 Colonel Chivington raided Black Kettle’s camp at Sand Creek – carrying on even when the camp surrendered. Chivington and his men killed over 130 people, including women and children, and took their body parts as trophies. Black Kettle escaped to warn other tribes. The massacre seemed to prove that the white Americans couldn’t be trusted. The Dog Soldiers attacked white forts and settlers in retaliation. In 1865 a new treaty was agreed. It said the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes would move to a new large reservation, and the massacre survivors would get payments. However, the government didn’t stick to its deal. Instead, in 1867 the tribes were moved to a reservation half the size of what they were promised, and no compensation was paid to the survivors. Black Kettle died in another massacre in 1868.
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Conflict with the Plains Indians-Red Cloud’s War (1866-68)
Red Cloud was a respected chief of the Lakota Sioux tribe. He chose to fight the government because they wouldn’t stop gold prospectors using the Bozeman Trail, which went through the tribe’s hunting grounds. He was also supported by two other leaders, Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse.
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Red Cloud’s War (1866-68)-events
The Lakota Sioux attacked soldiers and forts. There were around 3000 Indians against 700 US soldiers. Fetterman’s Trap: In December 1866, a group of 80 men led by Capt. William Fetterman were led into a trap and killed. The Lakota Sioux surrounded Fort Phil Kearny, trapping soldiers inside and stopping people using the Bozeman Trail. The government realised that their old approaches were not working. The second Fort Laramie Treaty was signed in 1868.
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The second Fort Laramie Treaty (1868):
 The Bozeman Trail was closed.  Red Cloud agreed to take his people to a reservation in Dakota.  This new reservation was to be exclusively for the Sioux nation (i.e. no Army forts). . Not everyone agreed with Red Cloud signing the treaty. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse refused to sign.
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Changes in the Farming Industry-Dry farming
Dry farming was a new technique of preparing the soil so that it trapped rainwater under the surface. It worked well for wheat. It was popular, but droughts in the 1890s meant it didn’t become widespread until the 1900s.
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Changes in the Farming Industry-Wind pumps
Wind pumps solved one of the biggest problems on the Plains: the lack of water. They pumped water from deep underground. Daniel Halladay designed a windmill that swung round automatically as the wind changed direction. Windmills needed lots of maintenance and early wooden ones weren’t very strong. Steel windmills (1880s) were much more effective.
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Changes in the Farming Industry-Mechanisation
New inventions helped make farming easier. Machines like the steel plough and seed drill helped with dry farming. Farming was made faster and easier, so farmers could farm larger areas. Farmers became more successful and bought more and more industrial products – this boosted the economy.
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Changes in the Farming Industry-Barbed wire
Barbed wire (1874) was used to fence off homesteaders’ claims, protect crops and stop livestock roaming. Early types rusted and broke, but these issues were fixed by the 1880s.
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Changes in the Cattle Industry-The beef bonanza
The beef bonanza of the 1870s meant that the open range became overstocked. This put an end to open range ranching.  There were too many animals on the Plains. All the grass was eaten up and the soil eroded.  Because so much beef was available, there was a fall in demand. Beef prices fell.
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Changes in the Cattle Industry-The Great Die-Up:
A very harsh winter in 1886- 87 killed off 15% of the open range herds. Temperatures hit as low as -55°C The cattle that did survive the Great Die-Up were in poor condition. This made them difficult to sell, so prices dropped even more. The big ranches on the Plains struggled the most because they couldn’t possibly save such a large number of cattle.
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Changes in the Cattle Industry-After 1887,
After 1887, the most viable ranches were small ones.  Small herds were easier to manage, especially during droughts and winters.  Smaller herds reduced the supply of beef, so prices went back up.  Ranchers focused on high-quality meat with pure-blooded breeds of cow.
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The impact of the end of the open range:
Many ranchers went bankrupt and moved back east, so more homesteaders moved in. There was less demand for cowboys. Many became ranch hands. Their lives became less adventurous:  They looked after horses, mended fences and harvested hay.  They lived in uncomfortable bunkhouses with strict rules.  They patrolled the boundary between two ranches (‘riding the line’).
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The Exoduster Movement (1879)
After the Civil War there was lots of racism towards black people in the South. Many white people couldn’t accept that slavery had ended. As a result, some black people moved to the West. Benjamin Singleton, a former slave, helped hundreds of black people move to Kansas after he settled there in 1873. In 1879 40,000 people set off west after a rumour went round that the whole of Kansas had been given to ex-slaves to settle. The people who took part in this large-scale migration were called Exodusters.
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Why did the Exodusters migrate to the West?
 Important individuals such as Benjamin Singleton and Henry Adams, who encouraged migration.  Better jobs in the West and the chance to build a new life.  Kansas had a reputation as an anti-slavery state.  The Homestead Act pulled people to the West with the promise of free land.  The Biblical story of the Exodus meant some migrants had faith in God to help them.
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The impact of the Exoduster movement: The West
By 1880 there were over 40,000 black Americans in Kansas. Some new settlements were founded by black Americans.
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The impact of the Exoduster movement:Black settlers
Black migrants were left with the poorest land because the best bits had already been taken. Many couldn’t afford the admin fee for claiming their homestead.
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The impact of the Exoduster movement: Kansas government
The Kansas government set up an association to help black migrants suffering from yellow fever, and gave a small amount of temporary funding to get them started.
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The impact of the Exoduster movement:White Americans
Most white settlers thought that the black migrants should go back to the South, and shouldn’t get any government help
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The impact of the Exoduster movement:The Exodusters
The Exodusters in Kansas were better off than they had been in the South, but were poorer than the white settlers. The movement ended as those in the South gradually heard about the reality in Kansas. After 1889 some black Americans moved out of Kansas in a second smaller wave of migration
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The Oklahoma Land Rush (1889)
In 1889 the government opened up the middle section of Indian Territory to white settlement(Some Indian land had already been sold in 1887, when tribes’ lands were broken up under the Dawes Act.) The land was divided up into 160-acre sections. At noon on 22nd April 1889 the first land rush began - thousands of hopeful settlers rushed over the boundary to claim a section as theirs.There were 7 land rushes in Oklahoma from 1889-1895. The largest was in 1893, when 8 million acres were opened up. By bringing in more white settlers, the Oklahoma Land Rush pushed the Indians out even more.
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Billy the Kid
Billy the Kid (aka William H. Bonney) was a famous outlaw in the West.  He grew up in mining camps in New Mexico and became involved in horse theft and cattle rustling.  He got involved in a range war (the Lincoln County War) in 1878. His side lost, but he swore he would kill everyone who was to blame for the death of one of his friends.  Billy and his gang had hideouts all around the county. He was notorious for breaking out of jails – the justice system was too weak to deal with him.  A new sheriff, Pat Garrett, was given the task of bringing Billy to justice.  Despite being caught by Garrett and sentenced to death, Billy made a dramatic escape from jail. Garrett tracked him down and killed him at Fort Sumner in 1881.
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Wyatt Earp and the OK Corral
Wyatt Earp was a law enforcer in the West.  In 1880 Wyatt was hired as the deputy sheriff of Tombstone, Arizona Territory. It was a boom town controlled by rich businessmen.  Wyatt and his brothers clashed with the Clantons and the McLaurys - two prominent local ranching families whose cowboys were involved in rustling and robberies.  On 26th October 1881 there was a gunfight at the OK Corral near Tombstone. (A corral is an enclosure for cattle or horses). The Earps killed members of the McLaury and Clanton families.  Trouble continued. When Virgil Earp (one of the brothers) was killed, Wyatt killed his murderers in revenge.  The Earps were forced to leave Tombstone. Their violent approach to the law had only caused more conflict.
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The Johnson County War (1892)
Range wars were conflicts over areas of land on the Plains. The most famous was the Johnson County War in Wyoming.
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The Johnson County War (1892)-Wealthy ranchers
Wealthy ranchers owned huge ranches and held key roles in local government and law. They were hit hard by the Great Die-Up of 1886-87. The big ranchers used their influence in the Wyoming Stock Growers Association (WSGA) to ban small ranchers, who they accused of stealing their cattle.
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The Johnson County War (1892)-Homesteaders and small ranchers
Ordinary people were fed up of the big ranchers taking what they wanted. In 1889, homesteaders Ella Watson and Jim Averill were killed by rancher Albert Bothwell, who wanted their land. In 1892 the small ranchers and homesteaders decided to hold their own spring round-up, to claim any unbranded cattle before the WSGA could.
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The Johnson County War (1892)- planning failure and trial
planning- The WSGA planned to invade Johnson County. They hired 22 gunmen to kill 70 rustlers.  They raised $100,000 of funds (mostly for legal fees)  They paid the gunmen $5 a day, plus $50 for every rustler they killed failure-‘The Invaders’ failed. They tried to attack the KC Ranch, but its owners Nate Champion and Nick Ray held them off all day. Sheriff Angus raised a posse of 40 men to catch the Invaders. Many local citizens joined in and they surrounded the Invaders at the TA Ranch. trail-The Invaders had to be rescued by the US Army. Their trial was biased:  They had powerful friends – the state governor, the judge, good lawyers.  The trial was moved out of Johnson County to Cheyenne, where the jury was more likely to support the ranchers.  The lawyers dragged the trial out until the prosecutors ran out of money. The charges were then dropped.
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The Johnson County War is significant because:
Rich, respectable cattlemen thought it would be a good idea to kill 70 people  More importantly, many people thought it was wrong and stood up to them (vigilante justice)
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The Battle of the Little Bighorn was significant because
The Battle of the Little Bighorn was significant because the US Army was defeated by the Sioux nation. This defeat changed government policy.
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Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876)-events
In 1874 many prospectors began searching for gold in the Black Hills, part of the Sioux hunting grounds in Dakota. This was a breach of the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty. The government offered to buy the Black Hills, but the Sioux refused. The government then said that the Sioux had broken the treaty because they were attacking prospectors. Thousands of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors left their reservations to join leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. The government gave them 60 days to return, or else they could be attacked. By spring 1876 7,000 Sioux had set up camp, ready for a war with the whites. US Army commander George Custer found a camp of 2,000 warriors in the valley of the Little Bighorn. Although he should have waited for backup, he went ahead and attacked with only 200 cavalrymen. Led by Crazy Horse, the Sioux killed Custer and all of his men. Public opinion now turned against Plains Indians: it was felt that they should assimilate (become like white Americans) or die…
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Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876)-Impacts of the battle (3 points)-
1-The army forced the Sioux and Cheyenne tribes back onto their reservations. They once again became dependent on the government 2-Previous treaties were now ignored. The government forced the Sioux to give up land, including the Black Hills. 3-More military control of the Plains. There were more soldiers and forts, and Sioux’s weapons and horses were taken.
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The Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)
The Wounded Knee Massacre was the last clash between the Army and the Sioux.
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The Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)-events
The Wounded Knee Massacre was the last clash between the Army and the Sioux. Wovoka, a Paiute Indian, claimed to have a vision that said if the Indians danced the Ghost Dance, the Great Spirit would bring all their dead back to life and a great flood would carry the whites away. As the Ghost Dance spread through the reservations, President Harrison ordered the Army to take control. Sitting Bull was killed in an attempt to arrest him. At Wounded Knee Creek, the Army opened fire on warriors as they danced the Ghost Dance. 250 Sioux Indians were killed – half of them women and children. Public opinion generally supported the Army.  People seemed to agree that ‘out of control’ Indians should be killed  It was seen as revenge for Little Bighorn. In 1890, the government announced the end of the Indian Frontier.
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end of the Indian Frontier
1890 In 1890 the Indian Frontier officially ceased to exist, and the first national park was created (Yosemite) to protect the little areas of wilderness that remained
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The Destruction of the Indians’ Way of Life Extermination of the buffalo-Extermination of the herds
Hunting of the southern herd peaked in 1872-74, when hunters killed 4.5m animals  The northern herd was protected by the Sioux reservation until 1876; it was exterminated by 1883.
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Extermination of the buffalo-Why were the buffalo hunted?
Their hide (skin) was valuable for leather. The rest of the animal was often thrown away.  Railroads brought hunters in from the cities.
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Extermination of the buffalo-Government policy
The government supported the extermination of the buffalo:  The treaties had clauses saying that any Indian hunting rights only lasted as long as there were buffalo to hunt  With no buffalo to hunt, the Indians were forced to farm and be more like white people  No buffalo made railroad building and ranching easier
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Extermination of the buffalo-Impact on the Plains Indians:
 Some tried farming, but their crops often failed  They depended even more on the government for food  Many starved and died of disease
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The Destruction of the Indians’ Way of Life-Life on the Reservations
The government gradually made the reservations smaller to force the Indians out of their way of life.
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Life on the Reservations-Loss of power:
The government took away the power of tribal chiefs and abolished special Indian courts in 1885
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Life on the Reservations-Government agents:
Government agents bribed Plains Indians with food or supplies in return for good behaviour. Some Indians joined the Indian Agency Police, where they were looked after reasonably well.
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Life on the Reservations-Education:
Plains Indian children were sent to military-style schools off the reservation. They were brought up as Christians and encouraged to abandon their Indian way of life.
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Life on the Reservations-Living conditions:
With the buffalo gone the Plains Indians could no longer support themselves. Most didn’t have the skills to farm and became more dependent on the government. Disease, alcoholism and depression spread through the reservations
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The Destruction of the Indians’ Way of Life-Changes in the Government’s Attitude
In the 1880s the government decided that reservations only encouraged Indians to live as part of a tribe, rather than as individuals. Getting rid of reservations would free up land for settlers, reduce costs and force Indians to assimilate.
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The Destruction of the Indians’ Way of Life-The Destruction of the Indians’ Way of Life
The Dawes Act was like a Homestead Act for Plains Indians.  Each Indian family was given a 160-acre plot of reservation land  Single people got 80 acres and orphans 40 acres  Plains Indians who accepted and left their reservation could become American citizens  All the reservation land left over was sold to whites (e.g. in Oklahoma)
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The Dawes Act is significant because
The Dawes Act is significant because it made life for Plains Indians even harder. The small, poor quality plots made farming very difficult – many gave up and sold their land to whites