The 50s BC, A Turbulent Decade Flashcards
What was clear to popularis politicans after the Catilinarian Conspiracy?
That if they were to achieve personal glory, they would have to change the political landscape somehow.
When did this change to the political climate first happen?
With the first triumvirate of Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar, that took place for Caesar’s consular year of 59 and was loosely held together thereafter.
Why was the first triumvirate brought about?
The three triumvirs found their wants thwarted by optimate elements in the Senate.
How was Pompey greeted upon his return from the Asia province? What had he achieved there?
- Pompey returned from Asia in 62 BC to a rather cold welcome,
- He had reorganised the provinces of the east which had increased public revenues of Rome through taxation by 70%, together with an immediate surplus of HS 480 million,
- He also had defeated Mithridates,
- In his eyes, land grants for his veterans would have been completely appropriate.
What did Pompey need from the Senate?
- His decisions about the eastern provinces were legitimate within the limits of his imperium,
- But now that he had returned, they required the Senate’s ratification, but confirmation was also to be expected.
What changed in the Senate upon Pompey’s return? What did this cause him to do?
- Over the next two years, opposition, born out of simple jealousy, would push him into the arms of Caesar,
- Pompey was becoming increasingly popularis in outlook, if only because the establishment resisted his continued successes.
What political maneouvre did Pompey attempt in 61?
- He sent ahead his lieutenant M. Pupius Piso Frugi as candidate for the consulship of 61, and asked that elections were delayed so that he could lend his support in person,
- Cato swung the Senate against the request,
- As it happened, Piso won anyway.
What did Lieutenant M. Pupius Piso Frugi do upon his election?
Tried to sponsor a land bill for Pompey’s veterans without success,
Who was set to gain consulship in 60? Why was this person against Pompey? What did Pompey try to do as a result?
- Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer was expected to gain the consulship of 60 BC, and Pompey could not expect any favours from him,
- Metellus had an optimate stance, and Pompey had divorced Metellus’ half-sister,
- Pompey therefore began bribing the electorate to get another former lieutenant L. Afranius elected in 60.
What did Cicero write of the consular elections for 60 BC, in relation to Pompey?
‘Now elections are in prospect; into them, against the wishes of all, our Magnus (Pompey) is thrusting Aulus’ son and in his cause he is fighting not with authority (auctoritas) and influence (gratia), but with those methods by which Philip said all fortifications could be stormed that a donkey laden with gold could get up to them.’
ad Atticum 1.16 (letter to Atticus)
Who ended up winning the 60s consular election? What did this person do immediately?
- Afranius was easily elected, and the bribery became notorious,
- Afranius tried to steer the approval of Pompey’s eastern settlements through the Senate, but these were opposed by Lucullus, the man who Pompey had ousted from Mithridatic command in 66,
- Lucullus was supported by Cato and Metellus.
What did Lucullus, Metellus, and Cato seek to happen in Senate?
- That every one of Pompey’s decisions be debated, rather than gain a blanket approval for all.
What did Pompey do to try and get around the Senate?
- Being thwarted in the Senate at every turn, he used the tribune L. Flavius to propose a land bill directly to the people.
Who did Flavius clash with? And what did he do to this person?
- Flavius clashed severely with Metellus,
- He hauled him off to jail, as a tribune could do this in theory.
What did Metellus do in response to Flavius’ actions?
- Made a show of his imprisonment,
- Summoned the Senate to his cell, so that Flavius and Pompey were made to look ridiculous.
What does Dio Cassius write of Pompey, in relation to the Senate in this period?
‘Thus he learnt that he did not possess any real power, but merely the name and envy resulting from his former authority, while in point of fact he received no benefit from it; and he repented of having let his legions go so soon and of having put himself in the power of his enemies.’
(RH 37.50)
Who were the publicani?
The corporations of equestrians who managed state contracts. They had to pay a fixed price up front to the treasury for their contract. In the case of taxes, they were free to keep a percentage of the revenue collected.
Since the time of Gracchi, the collection of provincial taxes had been delegated to the publicani, who were allowed to take a cut of the money collected.
What did the publicani complain of in 60 BC? Who supported them, and why?
- Complained to the Senate that they had overbid for their contracts in Asia and wanted to be released from a third of the cost,
- Crassus supported their claim because his own financial interests were linked to those of the publicani.
Who was Crassus?
M. Licinius Crassus, C. 115-53 BC, first became rich through the proscriptions. He defeated Sparticus in the Slave War. Consul in 70 with Pompey, triumvir in 59 and consul with Pompey a second time in 55. He died during the Parthian campaign at Carrhae in 53.
What is written of Crassus’ wealth?
- Little in the sources is written of Crassus,
- His wealth, however, was prodigious; he lent freely to all classes - equestrians and senators - and gained widespread political support from doing so.
What did Cicero think of the publicani request?
- Cicero wrote to Atticus about the unpleasantness of having to speak in favour of the publicani and cajole the Senate to agree,
- Although he did not approve of their request, he saw the need to maintain his concept of concordia ordinum whereby the senatorial and equestrian orders worked together to preserve the established state of things.
Who was the chief spokesperson against the publicani?
- Cato, his questioning held up other business for a while,
- He had also brought a bill about bribery in the courts explicitly making equestrians liable to prosecution, while previous laws had only allowed for the prosecution of senators,
- This was perceived by the equestrians as another attack on their status.
What does Cicero analyse of Cato’s actions towards the equestrians?
- Cato was tormenting the equestrians with high morality, rather than judgement,
- That Cato was living in a utopian ideal rather than Rome’s pragmatic political arena.
What did Caesar receive in 61?
He had gained sufficient military succes as pro-praetorian governor of Spain in 61 to seek a triumph upon his return.
What did Caesar seek in 59?
Sought to stand for consulship.
Who opposed Caesar’s bid for consulship? Why?
- Caesar asked to stand in absentia and await his triumph, but the proposal was discussed at such length by Cato that it was left undecided, a process termed filibustering (Plutarch, Caesar 13),
- Although Cato dressed this up as defending the proper order of things, his motivation was actually more personal,
- He was hoping to allow his son-in-law Bibulus the opportunity to gain some prestige independently of Caesar, as previously he had to compete against and share magistracies with Caesar,
- Additionally, Cato was upset by his half-sister Servilia’s long-standing relationship with Caesar.
What did Caesar offer for Pompey?
Caesar offered a renewed, more determined approach to gain settlement for Pompey’s veterans and to ratify his eastern decisions,
What did the optimates do in response to Caesar’s election? What did Cato think of this?
- In the face of Caesar’s election, the optimates resorted to bribery to ensure Bibulus was also successful, something that even Cato reportedly approved,
- Otherwise, the optimates were largely indifferent.
Why were the optimates seemingly indifferent to the election of Caesar?
- The traditional system whereby the nobles had sufficient influence to promote their sons and nephews to the top jobs still prevailed and power normally remained within a few families, with consuls being advised by their close relatives,
- Although there had been a steady stream of populares politicians achieving high office, these individuals could only hold power for a single year; even if both consuls were cooperating as Crassus and Pompey had done in 70 BC, the effects were transient,
- Thus the optimates probably felt that the occasional popularis politician was just part of the political scenery.
How did the optimates snub Caesar after his consular election?
- They snubbed him with a senatorial decision that the consular provinces for the coming year would be the woods and pastures of Italy, as opposed to more lucrative overseas command,
- Even if there were a need to improve rural communications, and suppress banditry, this was beneath the dignity of a consul, and can only have been an insult; it would certainly not attract an army,
- This, however, was only a minor irritation, to be overcome once in office. Despite Cato’s ideological ramblings, the optimates had become complacent.
Who did Caesar see as a threat to his amicitia with Pompey? How did he seek to solve this problem?
- He saw Crassus as a threat to their union,
- As consul elect, he sought to reconcile Pompey to Crassus,
- Politically the two were not far apart, all three were broadly speaking popularis, but in the case of Crassus and Pompey, their personal ambition and mutual animosity was getting in the way of personal success.
What did Plutarch observe of Caesar political maneouvring with Crassus and Pompey? What is this indicative of?
‘For it was not the case that by getting Crassu to support Pompey or Pompey to support Crassus he made either of them greater than before; instead, by using them he made himself greater than anyone.’
(Plutarch, Crassus 14)
This is indicative of Caesar’s political good judgement. Pompey had vast wealth and the loyalty of his veterans; this loyalty would be cemented if he could bring about land settlements. Crassus was equally wealthy, influential and very well-connected; while Pompey had fought wars, he had made business deals that pervaded all of Roman society.
What was Caesar’s first consideration as consul?
To secure land for Pompey’s veterans. Within his first few days of office, he proposed a land bill that a land commission be set up to settle veterans and urban poor. At first his proposals were conciliatory, and were brought before the Senate.
What did Caesar’s initial conciliatory proposals include?
- The ager Campanus, where many optimates had land-holdings and which was subject to taxation was excluded,
- The commission would comprise twenty men, the high number would diminish any individual’s importance,
- The commissioners could only purchase land that was willingly sold,
- All previous land occupation was recognised, to prevent claims of theft,
- The money was to come from Pompey’s settlements in the east,
- New settlers were banned from selling for twenty years, to prevent them making a quick profit and the rich buying up land soon after.
How much support did Caesar’s initial proposals receive? How did Caesar respond?
- Caesar made it clear that he was willing to negotiate on any given point.
- Despite the reasonableness of these proposals, there was little support in the Senate,
- Cato stood up to filibuster the whole proposal,
- Caesar’s temper broke and he threatened to arrest Cato, but this made him look foolish and he revoked the order (Plutarch, Caesar 14),
- Although Cato had won a moral victory, Caesar took the bill to the comitia tributa.
What discussions took place in the comitia tributa relating to Caesar’s bill?
- Before a law was voted on, preliminary hearings took place; these allowed people time to consider their position before voting,
- At one of these hearings, Bibulus spoke against the bill, but Caesar called upon Crassus and Pompey to support it:
‘… And when he was opposed by his colleague Bibulus, and Cato stood ready to support Bibulus with all his might, Caesar brought Pompey on the rosta before the people, and asked him in so many words whether he approved the proposed laws: and when Pompey said he did, ‘then,’ Caesar said, ‘in case any resistance should be made to the law, will you come to the aid of the people?’ ‘Yes, indeed,’ said Pompey, ‘I will come, bringing, against those who threaten swords, both sword and shield.’ ‘ (Plutarch Pompey 47)
What does Plutarch record happening to Bibulus? What did this show?
- Pompey’s veterans were everywhere in the city,
- Bibulus, while being accompanied to the forum with Cato, was set upon by a mob, his symbolic rods of office were broken and a bucket of dung was thrown over him (Plutarch, Pompey 48; Caesar 14),
- It appears that the triumvirs were orchestrating this violent intimidation.
What happened to the bill in the comitia tributa? How did Bibulus respond?
- The law was passed easily when it came to the vote,
- Bibulus did try to invoke the Senate against Caesar but to no avail, and so he ended up going home to declare the omens unfavourable,
- He did this because if the omens were indeed inauspicious, no public business should have been transacted,
- This might have been a nuisance but would never be a serious impediment; after all, Caesar was pontifex maximus and Pompey was an augur, so they could discredit Bibulus’ interpretations from a position of authority.
What does Cicero, in a letter to Atticus, write of Pompey in relation to the triumvirate?
- Cicero wrote to Atticus, May 59, that Pompey’s behaviour was perplexing and his justification contrived,
- So Pompey was said to be approving of the legislation but not necessarily the procedures used, or the manner in which Bibulus was treated,
- By July, Cicero was distraught:
‘Pompey, my hero, has brought about his own ruin, a fact which causes me great pain.’ (ad Atticum 2.19)
After his original land bill, what did Caesar propose?
- Within a couple of months Caesar produced a complementary land bill in which the ager Campanus was now included to be redistributed to 20,000 urban families that had three or more children,
- He took this directly to the comitia tributa, this was a direct affront to the optimates, many of whom stood to lose property by such a move,
- Some after, Caesar also proposed through a tribune that Pompey’s eastern decisions be confirmed,
- Similarly, the Asian tax collectors had their contracts renegotiated to address Crassus’ concerns.
What does Cicero write of Bibulus? What of general attitudes towards the triumvirs?
- Cicero was far from pleased with Bibulus’ ineffectual edicts,
- He does report that popular sentiment was turning against the triumvirs and Pompey had been publicly mocked in the theatre,
- Although one must take the individual events at face value, the importance that Cicero attaches to them is liable to his own conservative bias,
- An actor in the theatre probably did engender applause by heckling Pompey, but how far this represented popular sentiment is unclear,
- While the political classes may have been aghast at the triumvirs’ actions, it seems unlikely that there was wide spread dissatisfaction from the lowest classes, who stood to gain most from their regime.
What did Caesar do later in the year of his consulship, in relation to provincial command?
- He used the tribune P. Vatinius to propose in the concilium plebis that Caesar be given control of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum for five years, which was an unusually long imperium,
- The Senate had traditionally apointed provincial commands, but it has been shown that Marius first ignored this practice, and Pompey had twice secured commands this way.
What did Pompey further suggest that Caesar should have, relating to provincial command? How did the Senate respond?
- When the governor of Transalpine Gaul suddenly died, Pompey proposed that his also would be added to Caesar’s imperium,
- The Senate acquiesced, seeing no value in opposition,
- Though it is mentioned that Cato and three other tribunes (not Vatinius) actively sided with Bibulus to oppose the Triumvirate.
What did Caesar do towards the end of 59 BC, in relation to marriage?
- Caesar married Calpurnia the daughter of L. Calpurnius Piso, the designated consul for 58BC,
- In doing so, he was hoping to ensure that his actions were not reversed as soon as he left office,
- More importantly, Caesar married his daughter Julia to Pompey, a man much older even by Roman standards,
- Yet this marriage was a surprising success and did much to secure cooperation between the triumvirs in the 50s (Plutarch, Pompey 47; Caesar 14).
What did Caesar do towards the end of 59BC, in relation to the tribunes?
- Was looking for a replacement tribune to act in his interests,
- The young aristocratic but popularis radical P. Clodius Pulcher had long wanted to gain the office of tribune, but was prevented because of his patrician birth,
- Although, Clodius was from a very noble family, the Claudii, and sought the honours of high political office, he was the youngest son, and while his brothers taded on established optimate credentials, Clodius sought renown by being controversial and ingratiating himself with the plebs.
What did Clodius do in 62BC? What happened in exaggerated response?
- In late 62, Clodius had been caught observing and so profaning the rites of the all-female festival of Bona Dea which was being held in the house of Caesar as Pontifex Maximus,
- This was a minor piece of upper-class bravado, to sneak into the all-female ceremony and tell the tale,
- However, it was soon blown out of all proportion. Clodius had upset a few people with his popularis stance, most especially Lucullus because he had provoked a mutiny among his troops when serving in Armenia,
- Now Clodius’ enemies hoped to persecute him. At the trial, the bribery was notorious. Clodius was supported by Crassus who, according to Cicero, paid off debts, agreed to sponsor bills, and made other political promises to various juniors, so that despite Clodius’ clear guilt, he was acquitted (ad Atticum 1.16)
What did Cicero provide at the trial against Clodius?
Cicero had provided evidence against Clodius’ alibi, despite Clodius previously supporting Cicero against Catiline, and now Clodius bore a grudge.
What did Clodius do to gain a tribunate?
- Clodius sought adoption into a plebeian family, which required the approval of the pontifex maximus - Caesar,
- Cicero was still sufficiently influential so Caesar initially refused,
- However, when Cicero verbally attacked the triumvirate in court, Caesar became exasperated and agreed to the adoption,
- Although Clodius would represent Caesar’s interests in his absence, one should not discount his own ambitions.
What happened at the end of 59, in relation to Pompey?
- The Vettius’ affair,
- A group of nobles were implicated in an attempted assassination of Pompey,
- The whole thing, however, appears to have been an attempt by Caesar to keep Pompey faithful to the triumvirate (Cicero, ad Atticum 2.24).
What does Sallust say of the plebis urbana?
‘Besides this, the young men who had maintained a wretched existence by manual labour in the country, tempted by public and private doles had come to prefer idleness in the city to their hateful toil.’
Sullust, Catiline Conspiracy 37
Here Sullust is exaggerating the idleness of many, but there was a growing community at Rome that relied on hand-outs from the political classes and whose support could be used for political ends.
What had happened to the comitia plebis tributa’s voting tribes by this point?
Properly, all urbanite ought to have only been enrolled in the four urban tribes, but no census had been completed since 70 BC, so many of the poor domiciled at Rome were still enrolled in rural tribes. They were much better placed to attend the comitia plebis tributa than their rural counterparts, and so the plebs urbana were able to swing the vote of rural tribes, of which there were thirty one, and hence the comitia plebis tributa as a whole.
What was Clodius first law as tribune?
He made the corn dole free and increased the number of recipients to 320,000. This was a massive piece of largesse funded by the state, but at Clodius’ direction.
What second policy did Clodius introduce?
- The collegia (sg. collegium) - clubs made up of individuals living in close proximity. They fulfilled a social function, often seeing to burial needs. Under Clodius, many became street gangs,
- The collegia had been suppressed as a measure against Catiline, but Clodius had legalised them again,
- Clodius transformed some of the collegia into street gangs, to impose his will,
- However, many of the poor were still attached through the bonds of patronage to other political families, and so it was only a short time before opposing street gangs were being organised by other politicians,
- Most prominently, T. Annius and P. Sestius, both of whom were backed by Pompey, street warfare would ensure.
How did Clodius remove Cicero from Rome?
- Clodius, as tribune, carried a law against those who had brought about the death of Roman citizens without trial,
- Cicero was not explicitly mentioned, but the law was clearly aimed at him (remember the Catiline conspirators),
- Cicero’s response was theatrical, he put on mourning, as did large numbers of supporters, while Clodius and his gang members harangued him both verbally and physically,
- Cicero might have expected the support of the 58 consuls, Calpurnius Piso and A. Gabinius, as he had previously been on good terms with both,
- However, Clodius had bought their support by arranging good provinces for the following year. Cicero didn’t receive any help from Pompey either, who refused to meet him. Most disappointing was the absence of optimate support; Clodius may have been popularis but he was aristocratic, whil Cicero was merely a novus homo,
- Despite Cicero acting in the interests of the optimates during his consulship, the establishment was not prepared to protect him actively against one of their own. In the end, Cicero slipped away from Rome in exile.
Did anyone attempt to have Cicero’s exile overturned?
Cicero’s supporters looked to have his exile overturned from the very beginning, but their meetings, proposals, and votes for Cicero’s recall frequently met with violence.
When was Cicero recalled from exile? What happened between him and Clodius?
- Cicero was recalled from exile in late 57 BC,
- On 3rd November 57 BC, armed gangs acting under Clodius’ orders attacked workers at Cicero’s house, which was being restored after Clodius had demolished it during his absence.
What letter of Cicero’s evidences Clodius’ violence?
‘… he thinks of nothing but massacring his enemies, and goes from street to street openly offering slaves their freedom… But after this orgy of wrecking, arson, and loot, his followers have left him… He sees that if he slaughters everybody he chooses in broad daylight, his case, when it comes to court, won’t be a jot worse than it is already,’
(ad Atticum 4.3)
What did Clodius attempt in 56BC?
Sought the aedileship of 56BC, a position that would allow him further political activity and enable him to avoid any prosecution for his street fighting.
Who does Cicero write opposed Clodius in his attempt at aedileship? Who worked in favour of Clodius?
- That Milo, a tribune for that year, arrived at the elections early to declare the auspices unfavourable and so postpone proceedings,
- This greatly annoyed the consul Metellus Nepos, who was related to Clodius through marriage. Here familial relations overrode political leanings,
- Clodius was also supported by his brother Appius, who was very much an optimate, as were the Metelli,
- Cicero was optimistic that Milo would bring Clodius to trial for violence before he was elected,
- Cicero enjoys the contest between the two camps, seeing no fault in his own supporters using violence to overcome Clodius, even suggesting that Milo himself might just do away with Clodius himself,
- Clodius, however, was elected aedile and avoided prosecution.
What happened 2nd February 56BC?
- Immediately prosecuted Milo for violence, of which he was of course equally guilty,
- The law in Rome was a private citizen matter, where one citizen brought a case against another,
- As such it was political tool for the rick to incapacitate rivals,
- Despite Milo’s guilt, Cicero and Pompey both defended him.
What happened in the court for Milo’s trial?
- Descended into a riot, with a two-hour shouting match between the factions,
- ‘… all manners of insults ended with some highly scabrous verse to the address of Clodius and Clodia. Pale with fury, he started a game of question and answer in the middle of the shouting: ‘Who’s starving the people to death?’ ‘Pompey,’ answered the gang. ‘Who wants to go to Alexandria?’ Answer: ‘Pompey.’ ‘Whom do you want to go?’ Answer: ‘Crassus’ (who was present as a supporter of MIlo). About 2.15 the Clodians started spitting at us, as though on a signal. Sharp rise in temperature! They made a push to dislodge us, our side counter-charged. Flight of gang. Clodius was hurled from the rostra.’ (Cicero, ad Quintum fratrem 2.3)
- Cicero fully approved of these actions and exulted in the idea of Pompey moving men from the country to bolster Milo’s forces and to perpetuate street fighting (Cicero, ad Quintum frartrem 2.3),
- The trial was postponed several times before being shelved.
What had happened by 56 BC, in relation to Caesar’s 59 consulship?
- It was becoming a memory, the consulship was again being granted to optimate members of the established political families,
- Cicero was politically active once again, as he tried to dismantle the triumvir’s actions by attacking Caesar’s land laws in the Senate; that he could shows that they had not been fully enacted,
- Cicero also hoped to prise Pompey away from the amicitia of the Triumvirate, which was certaintly very loose by this point, as the respective backing of street gangs by both Pompey and Crassus showed.
Why, by 56 BC, did it make sense for the three triumvirs to re-establish their alliance?
- It was not in either Crassus or Caesar’s interests that they should lose Pompey’s support completely,
- Pompey had been openly attacked by Clodius an tacitly by Crassus, but he was no more welcome in optimate quarters,
- For all three the alliance made sense.
What was happening by 56BC, in relation to Caesar’s provincial command?
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, an incredibly rich optimate who had extensive landholdings and clients in Gaul, was agitating to replace Caesar in command of Gaul, which he saw as his own natural sphere of influence.
How did the three work to re-establish their alliance?
- Caesar met with Crassus at Ravenna,
- Next, Pompey travelled north to Luca in Cisalpine Gaul to meet with Caesar,
- When Pompey returned, he had a stern message for Cicero to back off and leave Caesar’s land laws alone.
What terms were agreed at Luca by the triumvirs and the other senators in attendance?
- Pompey and Crassus were to be co-consuls again in 55 BC,
- Pompey was to get five-year proconsular imperium in Spain,
- Crassus was to get five-year proconsular imperium in Syria and an expected military victory against the Parthians to equal the other triumvirs,
- Caesar’s imperium was to be extended another five years.
Who stood against the notion of Pompey and Crassus being consuls in 55?
Ahenobarbus with the support of Cato stood alone in opposition. With Cato himself seeking to be praetor.
What did the triumvirs do to ensure their consular election?
These two (Ahenobarbus and Cato) carried such great influence that Crassus mobilised a tribune, called C. Cato, and Clodius to foster fresh civic unrest. They managed to postpone the election long enough for Caesar to release troops on leave back to Rome in early 55 to participate in the vote. The presence of large numbers of troops made the atmosphere even more intimidating. On election day, there was fighting, but Pompey and Crassus were elected.
What was Crassus and Pompey’s first order of business as consuls in 55BC?
- The election of praetors,
- To prevent Cato from getting the position, they openly engaged in bribery and secured the election of Vatinius, who as tribune had supported the triumvirs in 59 BC.
How did Crassus and Pompey, as consuls in 55BC, secure their overseas commands?
- Used the tribune C. Trebonius to bring laws to secure their overseas commands before the comitia tributa, again the source report violence surrounding the vote,
- Pompey also engaged in large scale largesse, putting on an elaborate shows to open his new stone-built theatre.
What did did Crassus do at the end of 55BC?
Left for Syria to undertake his Parthian campaign; he died at Carrhae.
How did Pompey manage his provincial command?
He governed Spain through subordinates.
Who was elected as consul in 54BC?
Domitius Ahenobarbus and A. Claudius Pulcher, Clodius’ brother, were voted in as consuls on account of their well-established optimate credentials. Yet they were found to be as inadequate and self-serving as the triumvirs.
What happened during the aedile elections in 53BC? What did this result in?
- More were killed during the aedile election of 53BC,
- Pompey was splattered with blood, and the sight of this caused his wife, Julia, to miscarry,
- Julia died in childbirth the next year, removing one of the bonds that existed between the triumvirs; Pompey soon remarried.
How did Clodius die? What did the Senate do to attempt to restore order
- He died at the hands of Milo,
- In response, Bibulus and Cato proposed that Pompey be appointed consul for 52 without a colleague,
- The Senate wanted order and Pompey could provide it. Milo was prosecuted and Cicero’s defence proved inadequate,
- Yet, with Pompey in charge, 52 passed into 51 peacefully at Rome.
