Civil War and Caesar's Dictatorship Flashcards
How successful was Caesar in his command of Gaul in the 50s?
- Caesar enjoyed particular success in Gaul,
- He had been fortunate that hostile tribeshad moved into his area of influence as this gave him a pretext to start operations,
- But thereafter his contrived to fight successive Gallic and German tribes,
- He was honoured three times with public thanksgivings or supplicationes of unprecedented length,
- When Gallic tribes that had previously made their peace rebelled, he was not above widespread destruction, which at times amounted to genocide.
What did Caesar’s success in Gaul achieve him back home in Rome?
- The scale of his victories, the enormous wealth he built up, and the largesse through which he was distributing it meant that he was fast eclipsing Pompey as Rome’s most successful general,
- By the end of 51 BC, Caesar was looking for a triumphant return to Rome and a second consulship (in 48 would be the 10 year gap from Sulla’s reforms).
For what reasons did Caesar what a consulship in 48BC?
- Would make it easier to have his actions in Gaul sanctioned by the Senate,
- He could also hope to settle his veterans; he had raised several fresh levies through the Gallic wars, including non-citizens from Cisalpine Gaul to whom he had granted citizenship.
What did the Senate question of Caesar? What opposition did he have upon his return to Rome?
- Caesar’s political opponents questioned the reason for any continued command in Gaul when, by his own admission in his commentaries, no enemies remained,
- Some still harboured a desire to prosecute him over the actions of the first triumvirate,
- Others, most notably Cato and Ahenobarbus, wanted to prosecute him for attacks he had made on German tribes that were considered too far outside of his already considerable imperium,
For what legal reasons did Caesar want the consulship?
The consulship would save him from the indignity of a trial and allow him to secure a new proconsular command.
What was the most prominent reason for his want of consulship. according to Suetonius?
Overriding all else was his sense of honour.
‘… Asinius Pollio’s comment in his History …, where he says that Caesar, at Pharsalus, watching his enemies fly or be killed, said in these exact words: ‘They chose this; they would have condemned me, Gaius Caesar, despite my victories, if I had not sought the army’s help’ ‘
Suetonius, Deified Julius 30
For what reason did Pompey and Caesar end up as enemies?
- Pompey had briefly become the sole consul, as close as he might hope to get to a dictatorship, and despite Caesar’s military successes, Pompey saw himself as the pre-eminent man at Rome,
- The selfishness and intransigence of a few individuals, who were only a minority even among the optimates, would play on Pompey’s vanity and push him and Caesar into civil war. These included Cato and Ahenobarbus, and members of the Claudii Marcelli family.
What did Caesar use the tribunes for in 52BC?
To bring a law allowing him to stand for the consulship in absentia and remain safe in Gaul; at this point Pompey was in agreement.
How did Caesar attempt to win favour in Rome?
Through fresh displays of largesse. He put on games in honour of his recently deceased daughter, who had been Pompey’s wife. He also privately funded a new corn dole and gave away slaves from his Gallic spoils.
What law did Pompey pass to attempt to limit the power of Caesar 51BC?
Passed a law that required a five-year interval between holding a magistracy at Rome and a provincial command. This would prevent somebody, Caesar included, going from magistracy to provincial command with no opportunity to be held accountable for their actions in office.
What happened as a result of Pompey’s interval law?
A trawl of ex-consuls were sent to provincial commands, including Cicero, who bregudgingly set off to Cicilia, where he stayed abreast of events through correspondence.
What letter in 51BC tells us of a debate on Caesar’s command in Gaul? What happened in the debate?
- A letter of October 51 BC to Cicero (Cicero, ad Familiares 8.8.4-10),
- The consul for that year, M. Claudius Marcellus, proposed that the matter be decided after 1st March 50 BC; Pompey agreed that a decision was required after that date,
- Pompey went further and, when asked what he would do if Caesar disobeyed the Senate, said ‘what if my son wants to beat me with a stick?’ He was thus making a claim to seniority in the dispute and belittling Caesar as a naughty child trying to outwit his parent.
What dispute was there over the length of Caesar’s imperium in Gaul?
- Caesar genuinely saw things differently from his optimate opponents and Pompey,
- That Pompey and Marcellus were prepared to discuss Caesar’s recall after the 1st March 50BC suggests that they thought this was the proper date of termination,
- The law of Vatinius, which was passed in the first triumvirate 59BC, gave Caesar imperium for five years, probably due to expire on 1st March 54,
- In 55, Pompey and Crassus prolonged Caesar’s imperium by five years. Many sources make reference to the five-year extension, or of ten years in total (Cicero, ad Atticum 7.6),
- The issue is whether the second five years ought to run from 55, when the law was passed, or should be added to his original command and so not lapse until 1st March 49,
- This is the point that Caesar and his opponents disagreed.
Why would Caesar have been constitutionally secure in holding Gaul until 48BC?
- Constitutional convention gave him security because, until recently, provinces had needed to be allocated prior to a consul’s election,
- Therefore, the first magistrates who could take over from him were the consuls of 49, who would be elected in the summer of 50,
- These individuals would not normally leave Rome until the end of their consular year and so could not take over a province until the next year,
- Thus, while the legal limit of Caesar’s tenure might, in his view, have been 1st March 49, he could according to normal precedent expect to retain his province until the arrival of a successor at the beginning of 48BC,
How did Pompey’s interval law impact Caesar’s imperium in Gaul?
- Pompey’s legislation which required an interval of five years between a magistracy at Rome and a pro-magistracy in the provinces, changed the convention that would have protected Caesar’s imperium,
- Now any ex-consul could be allocated a province, Gaul included, and could proceed to that province immediately.
What did Caesar do by the start of 50BC?
- Had bought off the formerly establishment young noble Q. Scribonius Curio, who was tribune that year,
- Curio subsequently opposed repeated attempts by the consul for 50BC, C. Claudius Marcellus, the cousin of M. Marcellus, to strip Caesar of his imperium (Plutarch, Caesar 29-30).
What did Marcellus propose in December 50BC? What was the result?
- On 1st December 50, C. Marcellus proposed that Caesar should give up his command, but that Pompey should retain his,
- Curio reframed the question, proposing that both Caesar and Pompey should lay down their arms,
- Only twenty two senators voted against Curio, while 370 were in favour of both men standing down,
- It is clear, therefore, that the majority of the Senate favoured peace, but it is also true that they were impotent in the face of a few hardliners.
What did Caesar request in 49BC? Through who did he do this? Who supported this?
- Caesar sent letters via the new tribune for 49BC, Mark Antony and Q. Cassius Longinus, requesting that he retire to Cisalpine Gaul with just two legions until he could gain the consulship,
- This was later modified to Illyricum and one legion,
- Cicero, recently returned from Cilicia, apparently pushed for this and Pompey seemingly agreed (Suetonius, Deified Julius 29; Plutarch Caesar 31). Both Caesar and Pompey were willing to make concessions to avoid war.
How is Caesar’s 49 BC letter presented in Appian’s account?
The letters contents were more combative, with Caesar threatening to march on Italy if his requests were not met.
What did Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio Nasica propose Caesar do? What happened to this proposal?
- He was Pompey’s new father-in-law, and in Caesar’s view Pompey’s mouthpiece,
- Proposed that Caesar either lay down command or be declared a public enemy,
- Mark Antony and Q. Cassius vetoed the proposal, but were threatened and together with Curio fled Rome to join Caesar (Caesar, the Civil War 1.1-3; Plutarch, Caesar 31).
How did the Senate respond to the Caesar’s letter? How did Caesar, in turn, respond?
- They reacted as if it were a declaration of war; Ahenobarbus was appointed Caesar’s successor in Gaul, the role he had long coveted,
- On 5th January 49BC, the SCU was passed again, mobilising all magistrates to defend the state. This specifically included Pompey, who still held imperium for Spain (Caesar, The Civil War 1.4-5),
- When the news of the SCU reached Caesar, he paraded before his men the abuse that the tribunes had suffered. He complained how the SCU was designed to deal with those who threatened Rome, not good honest Roman citizen soldiers such as his audience, and beseeched them to defend his dignity,
- That same night he crossed the Rubicon, the boundary of his province with Italy, and the limit of his legal imperium (Caesar, The Civil War 1.7; Plutarch, Caesar 32; Suetonius, Deified Julius 31-3).
What policy did Caesar implement in the civil war to ensure Italians joined his side? What does Cicero say of it?
- Caesar tended to pardon those he defeated, which resulted in many Italian communities coming over to him willingly,
- As a policy this is explicitly recorded in a letter which survives in Cicero’s correspondence, from Caesar to his political agents Oppius and Balbus (Cicero, C 9.7C),
- Cicero commented in another letter that the country people only cared about their fields and farms (ad Atticum 8.13),
- It is important to recognise that the common man would have cared more about his livelihood, and so favoured Caesar, than the Republican ideals and high politics with which Cicero and the later sources are concerned.
What coinage did Caesar print at the start of the civil war as propaganda?
The Denarius of Caesar
Date: 48-47 BC
Obverse: Female head wearing oak-wreath and diadem,
Reverse: Trophy with Gallic shield and carnyx; below, bearded captive seated with hands tied behind back; words reading ‘Caesar’,
Significance: Caesar reminds the Roman people of his Gallic successes.
What did Pompey do in response to Caesar’s military operation in Italy? In turn, what did Caesar do?
- Pompey had no forces in Italy to oppose Caesar,
- He fled to Greece to muster opposition, Caesar had no navy with which to pursue him and so he looked west to Spain, Caesar defeated Pompey’s lieutenants Afranius and Petreius,
- In the winter of 49-48, Caesar crossed to Greece.
How did Pompey die?
- In the summer of 48 BC. Pompey was defeated at Pharsalus,
- Pompey then fled to Egypt but was killed on arrival by the Egyptians, who feated that he would annex their country,
How did Caesar end the civil war?
- Caesar followed Pompey and was delayed first in Egyptian domestic affairs and then in Pontus until the end of 47,
- The next year Caesar moved to Africa to confront those Pompeians who had survived his victories so far. It was here that Cato died,
- However, Caesar’s appointed governor in Spain, the former tribune Q. Cassius, had robbed the propertied classes of Spain through systematic extortion, in part to bribe an army that with every pay-off became less and less disciplined,
- The mutinous army had then accepted Pompey’s son Gnaeus as their commander. Therefore, despite his earlier victories, Caesar had to return to Spain in 45 BC, and defeat the younger Pompey at Munda.
When was Caesar first appointed dictator? For how long?
- From 49 onwards, Caesar had control in Rome while fighting raged over the Mediterranean,
- He was appointed dictator briefly until his own election to the consulship of 48 BC, the very reason for the war.
What policies did Caesar implement during his consulship of 48BC?
Passed some administrative measures that seem to have been aimed at easing the pressure of war on the city, including cancelling some debt and forbidding the hoarding of cash.
What happened at the end of Caesar’s consulship of 48BC?
He was once again appointed dictator, allowing him to retain control over home affairs.
What did Caesar face in 47 BC?
- Mutiny when he returned from Egypt; many of his troops had campaigned since the start of the Gallic campaigns, and had believed that they would be discharged after Pharsalus,
- His lieutenant, the author Sallust, was unable to quell the resentment; it took Caesar’s personal presence to bring them back in line,
- The loyalty of the troops was vital to Caesar’s personal presence to bring them back in line.
What was the importance of Caesar’s lineage?
He was supposed to be a descendent of Aeneas, the mystical founder of Rome.
What coinage did Caesar print as propaganda, in relation to his lineage, towards the end of the civil war?
Denarius of Caesar
Date: 47-46 BC,
Obverse: Head of Venus, wearing diadem,
Reverse: Aeneas carrying palladium in right hand and Anchises on shoulder; words reading ‘Caesar’,
Significance: Caesar reminds the Roman people of his lineage all the way back to Aeneas.
What happened to Caesar in 46 BC?
- Although re-elected as consul, Caesar was also appointed dictator for a third time, and this time for ten years,
- He celebrated four triumphs over Gaul, Pontus, Africa, and Egypt, ostensibly all foreign foes; there was some disquiet over Cato’s image being displayed in the parade,
- Caesar was awarded a 40-day supplicatio and the opportunity for largesse on a massive scale: donatives for evry male citizen, together with races, games, and dinners,
- The plebs were very satisfied with Caesar’s rule.
What did Caesar’s veterans receive?
Massive donatives equivalent to a lifetime’s pay, and army pay for those still serving was doubled to HS 900 each year (Suetonius, Deified Julius 38-39).
What did Caesar do at the end of 45BC?
Abdicated from his fourth consulship and started appointing his intimates as suffect (replacement) consuls for part of the year (Plutarch, Caesar 58).
What was Caesar appointed early 44BC? What cemented this status?
Between late january and mid february, he was appointed dictator for life. His men had saluted him as imperator after the battle of Munda; the Senate voted this a permanent title.
What political and social reforms did Caesar implement admist all the celebrations and honours (first 9)?
- Large increase in the membership of the Senate,
- Creation of new patrician families,
- Sons of the proscribed were allowed to stand for office,
- An increased number of magistrates to deal with the increased number of provinces.
- Restriction on the time governors could hold a province,
- Citizen status was granted to Cisalpine Gaul,
- Doctors and teachers resident at Rome were granted citizenship,
- Latin rights were granted to Sicily and parts of Transalpine Gaul,
- Foreign cities that had supported him were granted Latin municipal rights.
What political and social reforms did Caesar implement admist all the celebrations and honours (last 9)?
- Colonisation and resettlement of 80,000 veterans and urban poor in Italy and the provinces,
- Debt relief had begun in 48 BC, with assessments made at pre-war values, so alleviating the effect of inflation through the war,
- In 47, he released tenants in Rome from payments of rent up to HS 2,000 per year, those in Italy up to HS 500,
- Tribute was fixed for Transalpine Gaul, and rearranged for Asia and Sicily,
- Embarked on a large programme of public works,
- Reduced the number of recipients of the corn dole,
- Farm owners were compelled to employ at least one-third of their herdsmen as free men,
- Awarded prizes for having large families,
- And reformed the calendar to align with the solar year.
What do Plutarch and Suetonius write of Caesar’s assumption of powers and honorific titles?
- Both are critical,
- ‘However, the Romans gave way before the good fortune of the man and accepted the bit, and regarding the monarchy as a respite from the evils of the civil wars, they appointed him dictator for life. This was frankly a tyranny, since the monarchy, besided the element of irresponsibility, now took on that of a performance.’ (Plutarch, Caesar 57)
What criticisms did Caesar receive from the Senate?
- Political criticism came when he failed to rise when a senatorial delegation visited him,
- In contrast he rebuked a tribune who failed to rise when he rode past in triumph,
- When some citizens were punished by a couple of tribunes for crowning his statue, he chastised the tribunes,
- During the Lupercalia festival, his lieutenant Anthony repeatedly tried to bestow a diadem upon him. This was probably a stage managed affair, but it backfired when there was applause that he had refused it,
- He was unable to shake off the idea that he wished to be king, a hateful idea to the Romans.
What conquests did Caesar plan for 44BC?
- First he was going to attack the Dacians,
- Then go against the Parthians to avenge the death of Crassus at Carrhae.
What remained of his Republican opposition? What was significant about this?
- Most of the major figures (Pompey, Cato, Ahenobarbus, Metellus Scipio, and Gnaeus Pompeius) were dead but many lesser supporters of the old way remained,
- More than sixty were involved in Caesar’s assassination.
Who was M. Iunius Brutus?
Dates: 85-42 BC
The figurehead of the assassination plot against Caesar. His father was killed by Pompey in 77BC. His mother Servilia was Caesar’s long-term mistress. He was raised by his uncle Cato, who informed his deep-seated Republicanism. He died at Philippi.
Who was C. Cassius Longinus?
Died in 42 BC
Second to Brutus in the conspiracy. He was later awarded overall command of the Republican forces of the east by the Senate. He also died at Philippi.
What is thought to be the reason behind the assassination plot?
- While they styled themselves liberators, they were striving to free themselves from the political constraints that Caesar placed upon them,
- They were looking to restore the political order that would allow them to continue to gain overseas command, riches and dignity without being beholden to Caesar.
What did Caesar know of the assassination plot?
- Rumour of plots did reach Caesar, but he dismissed these and any idea of a bodyguard (Plutarch, Caesar 57),
- The later sources give portents of his death: Seemingly a soothsayer had warned him that he would be in danger on the 15th March - the Ides of March.
How was Caesar assassinated?
- Nevertheless on the 15th of March, and despite feeling unwell that day, Caesar arrived at Pompey’s theatre where a Senate meeting had been called,
- One of the assassins, C. Trebonius or Decimus Iunius Brutus (from a different branch of the family than the famous M. Iunius Brutus), drew Antony away to one side,
- Another, L. Tillius Climber, pressed a petition upon Caesar; the other conspirators crowded around him,
- Climber pulled his toga off his shoulder and C. Servilius Casca struck the first blow. The remaining assailants stepped in. According to Suetonius, Caesar’s dying words ‘and you my son’ were directed at Brutus.
