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General Psychology > Test2 > Flashcards

Test2 Flashcards

1
Q

Types of validity

A

Construct Validity
The Test is adequate
Predictive Validity
Able to predict certain phanomen
Internal Validity
The experiment sound
External Validity
Is it able to generalize

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2
Q

History of Intelligence Test

A

It began in a test for children
Intelligence is the ability or mindset to learn a certain thing
The French government wanted to objectively identify slow and fast learners to identify children in need of special education services.
Alfred Binet and Henri Simon (1904): first intelligence test.
When Binet and Simon created the first intelligence test more than a century ago, they had no inkling that they’d alter the landscape of psychology.
Goal is to measure intellectual performance of French school children
Test is a measure of current performance not innate abilities
Mental age vs chronological age
U.S. Impact: Immigrants and military training.

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3
Q

What is Intelligence In Charles Spearman (1927):

A

These correlations suggest a single common factor across all aspects of mental ability: g for general intelligence.
G: General Factors
4S: Specific Factors for visual, reading, maths and problem solving test
Logical reasoning
Verbal reasoning
Quantitive Reasoning

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4
Q

What is Intelligence In Raymond Cattell (1905–1998):

A

Crystallized Intelligence:
knowledge accumulated over the lifespan
Fluid Intelligence (g):
the capacity to solve new problems

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5
Q

What is Intelligence In Robert Sternberg (1949 - ):

A

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
This is base on 3 factors:
Analytical Intelligence: Mental step and components use to solve problem
Creative Intelligence: Use of experience in ways that foster insight
Practical Intelligence: Ability to read and adopt in life

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5
Q

What is Cultural Fair test

A

Use graphics instead of words to avoid culture and language differences.

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6
Q

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:

A

Is not single but multiple that interact with each other
Interpersonal: People smart
Intrapersonal: Self smart
Lingustic: Word smart
Logical Mathematical:Logic smart
Natualist: Natual smart
Spacial: Picture smart
Bodily-Kinesathetic: Body smart
Musical: Music smart

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7
Q

What is IQ

A

IQ
Wilhelm Stern(1912) invented the formula for Intelligence quotient.
Formula for Computing Score:
IQ = (Mental Age /Chronological Age) x 100

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8
Q

What is EQ

A

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
The ability to understand our emotions and those of others
EQ involves the ability to use this knowledge in our everyday lives

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9
Q

Standardizing Test Scores

A

The test is done in a consistent way for everyone
Administer test to a representative sample of the entire population that will take the test.
Establish “norms” or standards that individual test scores can be compared to.

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10
Q

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test for Verbal Intelligence

A

Test of receptive vocabulary for Standard American English and is intended to provide a quick estimate of verbal ability and scholastic aptitude.
The examiner presents a series of pictures to each person. There are four pictures on a page. The examiner speaks a word describing one of the pictures and asks the individual to point to the picture that the word describes.

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11
Q

Reliability

A

Different Versions of the Test Yield Similar Scores

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12
Q

Spatial Intelligence: Mental Rotation Test

A

A test testing the participant’s spacial ability by chosing the same shape that variated

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13
Q

Neuronal Plasticity

A

Intelligence is associated with prolonged development of the cerebral cortex:
A longer childhood is associated with greater plasticity over the lifespan.

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14
Q

Biological Basis of Intelligence

A

Brain size is weakly correlated with intelligence.
Cerebral cortex development is slower in gifted children.
Intelligence is intimately involved with working memory and short-term memory.
Intelligence is located throughout the brain, but the prefrontal cortex is especially implicated.

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15
Q

Sex Differences in Specific Mental Abilities

A

Differences tend to be small.
Sex differences could be due to the environment.
Tetris and other similar video games can improve mental rotation.

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16
Q

The Flynn Effect

A

The Flynn effect is the substantial and long-sustained increase in both fluid and crystallized intelligence test scores that was measured in many parts of the world over the 20th ~ 21st century.

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17
Q

Name the Commonly used IQ Tests Today

A

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale of Intelligence
Culture fair IQ tests
* don’t depend on language
Test of Nonverbal Intelligence

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18
Q

Reliability of IQ Scores

A

IQ is reasonably stable across age and across retesting.
◦ Prior to age 2 or 3 IQ tests aren’t stable over time.

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19
Q

Validity of IQ Scores

A

IQ can predict school grades when the entire range is
considered but not at the top end of the scores.
o IQ can predict life outcomes including health and
accidents, but because it is confounded with social class, it
is difficult to tease apart.

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20
Q

Habituation

A

Familiarity with a stimulus leads to a lessening of response.
As we are exposed to a stimulus repeatedly, our attention to it wanes. We habituate to a stimulus by losing interest in it.

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21
Q

Dishabituation

A

Increased response to new stimulus!
When a stimulus is new to us, our attention is drawn to it. If we have become habituated (bored), and attention is renewed, then we have dishabituated to the new stimulus.

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22
Q

Stimulus Discrimination

A

When an infant dishabituated to a novel stimulus, this indicates that the infant noticed a difference between the novel stimulus and the previous one

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23
Q

Dishabituation

A

Dishabituation is an indicator of what the infant was NOT expecting.
If the infant dishabituated to a novel stimulus, it indicates an outcome that is different from what they had expected to occur.

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24
Q

Behaviorism

A

Focuses on simple explanations for outward behavior
Unconcerned with inner workings of mind
Explores how people learn to behave
Helps us understand how personality is shaped by environment
Believes that individual differences in personality due to social learning
Learning how to behave from watching others’ behavior
Rise of Behaviorism:
Infant mind viewed as tabula rasa(白板子), or blank slate

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25
Q

Conditioning

A

Learned associations develop through conditioning process in which environmental stimuli and behavioral responses become connected
1. Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning （巴甫洛夫学说）
learning that events tend to occur together, e.g., thunder and lightning
2. Operant (instrumental) conditioning
learning that a behavior leads to a particular outcome, e.g., put coins in vending machine, retrieve candy; put coins in a slot machine, (maybe) win jackpot

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26
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Pavlov noticed the dogs salivating as soon as they saw the bowls that usually contained food or when a lab technician walked into the room . This suggested a learned response
Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that elicits response, such as the reflex without a prior of learning
Unconditioned response (UR): a response that without learning, such as reflex
Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus unrelated to UR
Conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
Conditioned response (CR): a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
So we can say that Classical conditioning is when a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response

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27
Q

Acquisition

A

the learning phase in which the CR is established; gradual formation of an association between NS and US

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28
Q

Extinction

A

gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US
Extinction is not the same thing as unlearning. It occurs when we stop delivering reinforcers to a previously reinforced behavior.
Spontaneous recovery :A sudden reappearance of an extinguished CR after a delay

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29
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

Elicitation of a CR to stimuli that are highly similar, but not identical, to the CS

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30
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

The opposite of stimulus generalization; occurs when we exhibit a CR to certain CS’s, but not others

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31
Q

Counterconditioning

A

Classical conditioning offers a way to get rid of phobias
Watson & Mary Cover Jones (1924) successfully treated 3-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with cookies

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32
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A learning theory that uses rewards and punishments to reinforce or inhibit behavior, primarily proposed by behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning, which focuses on physiological responses (for example, a bell causing a dog to salivate), while operant conditioning focuses on behavior and its consequences.

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33
Q

Skinner Box

A

used to study learning process in which the consequences of a voluntary action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in future
Rat explores the environment & presses the bar randomly. Get food.> Learns to press bar to get food
Food: reinforcer for pressing bar
Begins to press bar more often

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34
Q

Ways of Modifying Behavior

A

Reinforcement (Increasing behavior) : Likelihood of behavior occurring again (goes higher)

Positive:
Give something pleasant after a desirable behavior occurs.
Negative:
Take something unpleasant away
Punishment (Decreasing behavior): Likelihood of behavior occurring again (goes lower)
Positive:
Add something unpleasant following an undesirable behavior
Negative:
Take something pleasant away, e.g. time out.

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35
Q

Four Ways to Shape Behavior

A

Good things Bad (aversive) Thing

Administering Positive reinforcement Positive punishment (spanking)

                       (a reward: money, candy)

Taking away Negative punishment Negative reinforcement
(taking a toy away; time-out) (turning off a shock)

36
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

Reinforcement increases the likelihood the behavior will occur in the future
Positive vs. Negative reinforcement
Punishment decreases the likelihood the behavior will occur in the future
Positive vs. Negative punishment
Positive (+) = addition of something
Negative (–) = removal of something

37
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement

A

Giving out rewards for good behavior at certain intervals
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Always given a reward for good behavior
Partial reinforcement schedule
Only sometimes given a reward for good behavior

38
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs
Pro: faster learning
Con: faster extinction

39
Q

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement

A

Occasionally reinforcing a behavior
Pro: slower extinction
Con: slower learning

40
Q

Four Reinforcement Schedules

A

Fixed-ratio reinforcement
Given a reward after a certain number of behaviors
Variable-ratio reinforcement
Given a reward after a random number of behaviors
Fixed-interval reinforcement
Given a reward after a certain amount of time has passed
Variable-interval reinforcement
Given a reward after a random amount of time has passed

41
Q

Certain reinforcement schedules can really motivate behavior

A

Continuous reinforcement schedule (reward every time) is what you use to learn a new behavior.
Eventually you move to a partial reinforcement schedule (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, or variable interval).
Variable-ratio schedules usually lead to the greatest increase in desired behavior. Better at maintaining behavior for an extended period (e.g., gambling)

42
Q

Shaping

A

To learn to push the cart, the dog was likely
rewarded for behaviors closer and closer to the
desired behavior, known as shaping. Next
time, let’s shape the dog to buy dog food instead of pineapples and eggs, though

43
Q

Observational Learning (recall Bandura)

A

Modeling and imitation
*The Bobo Doll Experiment
* learning aggression through
modeling

44
Q

Cognitive map

A

Cognitive maps are a concept proposed by psychologist Edward Tolman to describe an individual’s internal representation of the external environment in the brain. Cognitive maps help people navigate, remember locations, and make decisions when faced with new situations or routes.

Spatial Representation: Cognitive maps describe the relationships between different locations in space, including distance and direction, allowing individuals to navigate effectively within an environment.

Flexibility: Cognitive maps support not only the memorization of known routes but also adjustments when facing new ones. For instance, if a familiar route is blocked, people can use their cognitive map to find alternative paths.

Accumulation of Experience: Cognitive maps are formed gradually through experience, so as an individual’s experiences grow, their representation of the environment becomes more accurate and detailed.

Abstract Nature: Cognitive maps are mental representations, often presented in an abstract way rather than as precise physical maps. Thus, individuals may remember key places or landmarks rather than every detail.

44
Q

Limit of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

A

Overemphasis on Observational Learning: SLT places significant emphasis on observational learning, where individuals model others’ behaviors. Critics argue that it downplays other factors like personal motives, innate traits, and biological influences that also contribute to behavior.

Insufficient Attention to Developmental Stages: SLT does not account for age-specific developmental stages. Unlike Piaget’s or Erikson’s theories, it doesn’t explore how observational learning changes with age or cognitive maturity.

Limited Explanation of Internal Processes: While SLT introduces cognitive factors, like attention, retention, and motivation, it primarily focuses on observable behaviors. Critics argue that it overlooks complex internal psychological processes (such as feelings, thoughts, and unconscious motivations) that may affect learning and behavior.

Underestimation of Biological Influences: SLT often overlooks biological and genetic factors that impact behavior. For instance, personality traits, temperament, and other hereditary aspects play a significant role in behavior, which SLT does not fully address.

Challenges in Explaining Complex Behaviors: SLT effectively explains simple behaviors but has limitations in explaining complex behaviors that may not have a direct observational model. For example, it might be less helpful in explaining highly individualistic or original actions that are not based on observed behaviors.

Environmental Determinism: Critics argue that SLT leans towards environmental determinism, implying that individuals are mainly shaped by their surroundings. This downplays the role of personal agency, autonomy, and free will in shaping behavior.

Difficulty in Empirical Measurement: Some components of SLT, like internal cognitive processes (e.g., motivation or attention), are hard to measure empirically. This makes it challenging to test and verify certain aspects of the theory in controlled settings.

45
Q

Implications of Behaviorism

A

Clinical Psychology (CBT)
Child Psychology
Behavior Modification Programs
Health Psychology
Animal Training

46
Q

The science of successful learning

A
  1. Embrace Difficulties : The more effort requires to retrieve the more that learning take place
  2. Avoid illusions of knowing: Familliarity is not mastery. We are drawn to immediate short term gain, not slower, effortful, long term retention.
  3. To learn, retrieve: Periodic practice and testing strengthens retrieve routes. Test your self rather than rereading notes
  4. Space it out , mix it up: When testing youself, variety and a little time to forget, raise the challenge of retreaval and result in greater retention
  5. Beyond learning style: We have different intelligence and by drawing wide variety, we improve retention.
47
Q

How memories stick

A
  1. Increase your ability: Embrace a growth mind set. Practice like an expert and construct memory cues
  2. Elaborate: Find different meaning of new materials by explaining it in your own words and by making connections
  3. Generate: Attempt to answer a question or solve a problem before seeing the solution. Wade into the unknown and puzzle through it
  4. Reflect: Combine elaboration and retrieval b y recalling learning, connecting learning and reflect on the success of learning.
  5. Calibrate: Use objective measures, such as test and expert feedback, to clear away illusions and adjust the accuracy of the judgement of your learning.
48
Q

CRIME

A

Chunking: the configuration of smaller units of information into large coordinated units，组合记忆
Rehearsal: 彩排
Imagery: 想象
Memonics：复杂的东西简化成不同部位
Elaboration：解释

49
Q

What makes Memories Prone to Loss or Distortion（忘记 或者记不清）

A

Memory is reconstructive, meaning it pieces together fragments of information and can be influenced by emotions, biases and external suggestions.
Proactive
Old Interferes with New

Retroactive
New Interferes with Old

50
Q

Memory illusion

A

It is a false but subjectively compelling memory

Memories are often incomplete, biased, and distorted.

Your memory is not like a video camera, but is a “reconstruction”
Bartlett (1932) had English participants read the Canadian Indian folktale “War of the Ghosts” and recall the story numerous times at varying intervals. At longer intervals, their stories became increasingly distorted; they omitted details and made the story

51
Q

Suggestibility and Child Testimony

A

Young children are especially vulnerable to suggestions to recall events that did not occur
May cling to false memory, even when assured it did not occur
Repeated questioning may elicit misinformation
Especially affected by schemas—organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory (script memory)

51
Q

Eyewitness Testimony

A

Weak correlation between witnesses’ confidence in their testimony and its accuracy
Less accurate when observing others of different race
Less accurate when the witness has talked to other witnesses
Less accurate when the observed situation is stressful (e.g., threatening, weapon involved)
Many individuals have been wrongly convicted and exonerated through DNA testing

52
Q

Multi-Stage Memory Model

A

Stage 1 :Sensory Encoding
Sensory memory
Short term memory (working memory)
Long term memory

Stage 2: Temporary Storage & Processing

Stage 3: Long-Term Storage & Retrieval
Tip of the tongue Phenomenon:
The experience of knowing that you know something but lack sufficient retrieval cues to access it
Memory in the Brain:
The hippocampus is a brain structure within the limbic system.
It plays an important role in memory consolidation. Memories are not stored directly in the hippocampus, but are distributed

52
Q

Short-term Memory Storage

A

Temporary storage and processing system that retains the information we are currently thinking about for a limited amount of time.
Subject to decay and interference.
Capacity limit: usually people can remember 7 +-2 objects in short term memory. Organizing information to be remembered into meaningful groupings can extend the capacity of short-term memory beyond 7 ± 2.

53
Q

Constructive Nature of Memory

A

Flashbulb memories
Memories of emotional, traumatic events (e.g., assassinations of JFK, MLK, Hurricane Katrina) were thought to be extraordinarily detailed and accurate.
Research has shown that traumatic memories (e.g., the Challenger explosion and 9/11) become distorted over time, just like any other memories.

54
Q

Primacy Effect:

A

Remembering more about things start in the beginning

55
Q

Recency Effect

A

Remembering more about things at the end

55
Q

Maintain rehearsal

A

Repeat information to be remembered in its original form to retain in the short term memory.

55
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Think about the meaning of the terms to be remembered,explain it in your own words, link it with your prior knowledge

56
Q

Retrograde Amnesia:

A

Loss of memories of past events

57
Q

Anterograde Amnesia:

A

Inability to encode new memories of events

58
Q

Explicit Memory

A

Accessible to conscious awareness, can be stated “declaratively”
Semantic Memory: knowledge of facts
Episodic: memory of events in our live

59
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Memory we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously:
Procedural Memory: ‘Know how’ memory
Priming: Facilitated recognition of a stimulus after seeing it, or a similar stimulus previously
Conditioning associated conditioning between neutral and innately meaningful stimuli
Habituation:decrease in attention to familiar stimuli over time

60
Q

Heuristics

A

mental shortcut that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world

61
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype

62
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our mind, yet we sometimes make mistakes…

63
Q

Cognitive biases

A

(confirmation bias, hindsight bias, researcher bias, etc.)

64
Q

What is a Variable?

A

Something in the world that can vary and the researcher can measure
Some examples:
well-being,
IQ
self-esteem,
health,
depression
and the list goes on and on…

65
Q

Validity

A

The degree to which a tool measures what it claims to measure. Results satisfy objectives

65
Q

Reliability

A

The stability or consistency of the measure. Results are consistent

66
Q

External validity (generalizability)

A

the degree to which the findings can be generalized outside the laboratory (可以被广泛应用的)

67
Q

Internal validity

A

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study.（在实验情况内可靠）

68
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Watching behavior in real world settings
Watching animals in the wild
Observing people in real life settings
Definition
Behavior is observed in the environment in which it occurs naturally.
Advantages
The subject’s behavior is more natural than behaviors taking place in the laboratory.
Disadvantages
The presence of an observer may alter the subject’s behavior.
Low internal validity: the observed behavior may be specific to the individual and the setting, and may not generalize to other individuals in the population or other settings.

69
Q

Case Study

A

Examining one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period
Definition
Behavior of one person or a few people is studied (in depth).
Advantages
Rich descriptive information.
May help form the research question.
Disadvantages
The case(s) studied may not be representative.
Time-consuming and expensive.
Observer bias.
No conclusion about cause-and-effect.

70
Q

Survey

A

List of question
Advantage:
Able to collect a big sample of data. This can apply to general situation
It is cheap
Disadvantage:
People may lie in survey
Information source could not be control

71
Q

Correlational

A

a research design that examines the effect to which two variables are related or associated.
*“associated” “linked” “related”
Definition
Examines how two or more variables are related
Advantages
May clarify relationships between variables
Disadvantages
If two variables are correlated, it does not mean one variable causes the other. There could be a cause-and-effect relations, but you cannot assume one based on one correlational study

72
Q

Experimental

A

Start with hypothesis
Experimental group
the group(s) that receive the manipulation of the IV
Control group
a comparison group that does not receive the manipulation (or receives one unrelated to the independent variable)
Definition
One or more independent variables are systematically manipulated, and the effect of that manipulation on other dependent variables is studied
Advantages
Offers researchers the opportunity to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships (in contrast to correlational studies!)
High internal validity
Disadvantages
Artificial lab settings and tasks (may compromise external validity)
Confounding variables
Many variables we want to study cannot be manipulated:
age, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, number of children, race/ethnicity, religion, household income, neighborhood characteristics, level of education, employment status, work history, place of birth, immigration status, military service
A TRUE Experiment requires two important things:
Manipulation of the independent variable (and some level of control)
Random assignment of participants to conditions

73
Q

Random Assignment

A

Each research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
Balances out known and unknown factors, increasing the likelihood that the groups are equivalent
Each research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
Balances out known and unknown factors, increasing the likelihood that the groups are equivalent

74
Q

Random Selection

A

Every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected
helps to ensure your results are externally valid
Vs. using a convenience sample
sample of individuals conveniently available for the study

75
Q

Iconic memory

A

The flash memory that records the icon from what we see (visual record)

76
Q

Replicability

A

The ability to let others duplicate the experiment.

77
Q

Classical Conditioning
in Daily Life

A

Advertising
Acquisition of fears
◦ Watson and Rayner (1920): Little
Albert Experiment
Classical conditioning offers a way to get rid of phobias
* Watson & Mary Cover Jones (1924) successfully
treated 3-year-old Peter, who had a phobia of
rabbits, by slowly introducing a rabbit paired with
cookies

77
Q

Conditioned Taste
Aversions

A

Conditioned taste aversions violate important principles of traditional
classical conditioning:
Conditioned taste aversion: classical conditioning can lead us to develop
avoidance reactions to the taste of food
Requires only one trial for learning to take place
CS-US delay can be 6 to 8 hours
Very specific with little stimulus generalization

77
Q

Insight

A

This type of learning allows individual to solve novel problems with creaive strategy

78
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

A sudden reappearance of an
extinguished CR after a delay

79
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A

People is hard to memorize things that they didn’t put attention on

General Psychology (2 decks)

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