Test 3 Flashcards
Difficulties of Explaining Emotions
Hard to explain
My definition does not equal your definition
Difficult to standardize
3 dimensions of emotions:
Valence:Positive or negativeHappy vs sad
Arousal: High or low
Excited or relax
Approach or withdraw
Components of emotion
Affective componentImmediate positive or negative feeling (下意识反应)
Experience
Develops very quickly (maybe even before the event is understood)To manipulate emotion, we use:
Evocative Stimuli
Images
International Affective Picture System
Film
Disgust: Car accidents, amputationsHappiness: Puppies!
```Desire: Chocolate dripping, Attractive people
Measured by Self report.
Physical Reaction
Heart rate
Blood pressure
Breathing rate
Blood rate
Blood flow to the skin (blush)
Alertness of eyes
Facial display
Skin conductance response (sweat)
‘Caused by chemical changes in the nervous system
‘Relatively fast, but difficult to interpret:
‘‘Generally: there are not different patterns of response for different emotions
‘‘Look at differences within an individual from baseline
Some emotions are different:
Generally: there are not different patterns of response for different emotions
Look at differences within an individual from baseline
Some emotions are different:
Anger, fear, and sadness
Greater heart rate than disgust
Fear and disgust
More galvanic skin response than sadness or anger
Blushing
Only with embarrassment
Parasympathetic arousal (calming)
Prosocial emotions like compassion
Watch a video and measure:
EKG: Changes in heart rate
Skin Conductance Response: Increased sweating
Facial Movement Sensors: Involuntary smiles
Pupil Dilation: Focus attention
Evolutionary Basis of Emotion
Charles Darwin and Emotion
Expression of Emotions in Man and Animal, 1872Emotions + expressions are universal and evidence of the “unity of mankind”
Animals and humans may share some emotions (and expressions)
Capacity to detect and respond to stimuli necessary for survival
``E.g. Approach food, avoid threat
Discrete Emotions Theory
Humans experience a small number of distinct (basic) emotions that they can combine in complex ways.
Distinguishing Between Types of Emotions:Primary emotions: emotions that are evolutionarily adaptive, shared across cultures, and associated with specific physical states
Secondary emotions: blends of primary emotions
Culture and Emotion
Darwin pointed to similar facial expressions across cultures
Universal facial expressionsFacial expressions labeled as the same emotion across cultures
Paul Ekman in New Guinea
Display rules: one of the cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions.
Study of Americans vs Japanese
James-Lange Theory
Result of physiological Reactions to events
Events is necessary to occur emotion and dominates the emotion
Cannon Bard Theory
Event occurs
Thalamus receives sensory input
Simultaneously, the autonomic nervous system responds and the cortex interprets situation
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Emotion is based on two factors:
Physiological arousal and Cognitive labeling
Whenever a person feels aroused, they search the immediate environment for cues to label their state of arousal. Consequently, how stimuli in the environment are perceived is influenced by one’s state of arousal.
Dutton & Aron (1974) (吊桥效应)
Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety.
Males were more likely to call a female research assistant if they had just crossed a fear-inducing bridge than if they had crossed a safe bridge.
Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Mere exposure effect:Repeated Exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably towards them
Subliminal:
stimuli that are below the threshold for awareness.
Emotional Expression Through Body Language
Nonverbal leakage: an unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behavior
Disorders of emotion
When are they dysfunctional:
Depression:
Increased sadness:Wrong context
Long lasting
`Intensely felt
Reduced happiness/pleasure (anhedonia)
Altered neural responding to and processing of emotion
Truth telling: Darwin
The face gives us away!
1/5th to 1/25th of a second: TRUE emotion showsMicro-expressions
Other signs to distinguish sincere from insincere:
MorphologySymmetry
Duration
`Temporal Patterning
Truth telling
Morphology:
Eye crinkle in smiling
Hard to Fake!
Fake and genuine smiles are controlled by different parts of the brain.
Fake smiles because they are conscious decisions,Follow a conscious pathway and contract only the zygomaticus major in the cheeks
Genuine smiles follow automatic pathway
Trigger orbicularis oculi and the pars orbitalis to move the mouth muscles, cheeks, crease eyes
The end of eyebrows dip slightly too.
Truth telling
Symmetry
Sincere expressions are more symmetrical
The left side of our face is usually more expressive
`Their Left is our Right…
This is especially noticeable for voluntary / forced emotional expressions
Truth telling
Duration :
Sincere expression generally last from 0.5-5 second
Temporal Patterning
Others about Truth telling
Emotions aren’t just hard to hide on our face…
Liars speak more slowly, take longer to respond, and give less detail.
They’re less fluent, less engaging, more uncertain, more tense, and less pleasant.
You’d think this would make it easy to identify when we are being lied to….
NOPE. Barely better than chance.
People want to believe others are honest…
Same with micro-expressions
People get signs mixed up
Fast talking, they must be lying – WRONG!
Slow talking, they seem honest– WRONG again!
What makes you happy
The realities:（真的让你开心的）
Marriage
Friendships
College
Religion
Exercise
Gratitude
Experiences
Flow
What makes you happy
The Myths (不是真的让你开心)
The prime determinant of happiness is what happens to us
Money makes us happy
Happiness declines in old age
People on the West Coast are the happiest
What makes you happy
Positive Psychology
Emphasizes human strengths, such as resilience, coping, life satisfaction, love, and happiness.
Happiness correlated with longevity
Broaden and build theory: Happiness predisposes us to think more openly, allowing us to see the “big picture” we might have otherwise overlooked
Happiness is the only completely positive primary emotion
What does happiness buy us?
Happiness predisposes us to think more openly, allowing us to see the “big picture” we might have otherwise overlooked
Happiness is the only completely positive primary emotion
Happiness correlates with longevity
Choosing Mates
Social Influences on Interpersonal Attraction
Proximity: when near becomes dear
··How can you start a relationship when you’ve never met the person?
··Slightly different today with the internet…
··But still: you have to see the person sometimes…
··Otherwise what’s the point?
··War Letters
Similarity: like attracts like
··We like to think opposites attract…
··Even “Opposites” have things in common (Shared views, priorities, etc.)
··Differences produce opportunities for disagreement
··Reciprocity: all give and no take does not a good relationship make
··Balance is key- giving all the time makes us uncomfortable
··But so does receiving…
··Unfair / lack of balance is not sustainable.
Physical attraction: like it or not, we do judge books by their covers
··Study - randomly paired people to be partners at a dance
··What predicted if people decided to have a second date?
··How physically attractive they found their partner.
Sex differences in what we find attractive: nature or nurture?
··Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures
··Men preferred attractive physical features suggesting youth and health
··Women preferred resources and social status
MOTIVATION
A Beginner’s Guide
·Drive reduction theory: Certain drives, like hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration, motivate us to minimize aversive states.
·We are motivated to maintain a given level of psychological homeostasis.
Incentive Theories: Positive Motivation
·We are often motivated by positive goals.
··Intrinsic motivation: motivated by internal goals.
···E.g. mastering the material
··Extrinsic motivation: motivated by external goals.
···E.g. graduation
··Some research undermines incentive theories.
···Once we receive reinforcement for performing a behavior, we expect that reinforcement again.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Only a few people are self-actualized, as many of us must focus on needs at lower levels (drive reduction) rather than at higher levels (internal and external
goals for achievement
Love is multi-faceted
*Lust (sex drive),
*romance (obsession), and attachment (long-term) don’t always go together!
People can love more than one person in different ways!
Localization of Function
identifying brain areas that are active during a specific psychological task
pop psychology and the media oversimplify matters
·areas likely work together to produce our perceptions
Debunking: The “Are You Right Brained or Left Brained” Myth (假的)
Our Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS):
·part of the nervous system containing the brain and spinal cord that controls the mind and behavior. It includes
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
·nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system
Central nervous system
Brain
Basal Ganglia
Limbic System
Brain stem
Corpus callosum
Spinal chord
Brain
Cerebral Cortex （大脑皮层）: the outermost covering of the brain. Also called gray matter。It contains:
`Neocortex: most recently developed cortex
`Cerebral hemispheres: left and right
`Corpus callosum: connects the two hemispheres and permits communication between them
`Frontal Lobe (前额叶)：
Prefrontal cortex: executive functioning,reasoning, planning
Marshmallow Test: A test of delayed gratification (self-control).（小孩子在通过闻，吃小部分和把玩棉花糖来忍耐不能立刻吃到棉花糖） ``Motor cortex: sends signals to muscles for voluntary movement.Functions:
reasoning
planningmovement
emotionsproblem solving
language (Broca’s area)``Case Study of Phineas Gage：（Prefrontal cortex）
Parietal Lobe （顶叶）integrates vision, spacial, touch, and motor information
perception of stimuli：
movementorientation
recognition
Temporal Lobe（颞叶）Auditory perception and recognition
language comprehensionsemantic and episodic memory
perception and recognition of auditory stimuli
autobiographical memory
speech & language comprehension (Wernicke’s area)
Occipital Lobe (枕叶)：
Visual processing
Phantom Limb Patients (幻肢痛)
Phantom limb syndrome is a condition in which patients experience sensations, whether painful or otherwise, in a limb that does not exist.
It has been reported to occur in 80-100% of amputees（被截肢者）, and typically has a chronic course, often resistant to treatment.
Limbic System（大脑边缘系统)
emotion center of the brain
Networked with parts of the peripheral nervous system to influence blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, the endocrine system, etc.
Information about our internal state.
thalamus: relay station for incoming sensory information
hypothalamus: thirst, hunger, sexual motivation, body temperature, control of the autonomic nervous system
amygdala: emotion, especially fear
and excitement
hippocampus: memory, learning, spatial relationships
Language Processing Areas of the Brain:
Broca’s Area: Words and pronunciation of language(frontal)
Wernicke’s Area: Comprehension and understanding of language.(temporal)
Brain Stem
Basic bodily functions: breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness, whether one is awake or asleep
Cerebellum(小脑)
Part of the hindbrain that controls balance of the body and maintains muscle coordination
Pons
Part of the hindbrain that relays messages between cerebellum and the cortex.
Medulla
Part of the hindbrain where nerves cross from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain, controls heart beat, breathing and swallowing
Reticular activating system
A system of nerves that running through the medulla pons and the midbrain to the cerebral cortex, controlling arousal and attention.
Corpus callosum
It connects the two hemispheres and permits communication between them.
Split Brain Patient
When the word appears at the right side the participant is able to answer what he saw because the left hemisphere is dominated for verbal processions.
However, he had difficulty answering the word flashed at the left because the left hemisphere is not connected to the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere is dominant for creativity so the patient is able to draw.
Neurons
Nerve cells specialized for communication.
The brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons.
Cell body
Central region of the neuron that manufactures new cell components
Makes proteins, replenishes molecules vital to cell function
Separated from outside by neuronal membrane
Dendrites (神经突触)
Branchlike structures jutting off of the soma that receive messages from other neurons
Axon (轴突)
portion of the neuron that sends signals
Myelin Sheath
type of glial cells that are wrapped around the axon
Speed up neural transmission by helping neurons conduct electricity more efficiently
Axon terminal
end of axon which contains synaptic vesicles
Synaptic Vesicles
Saclike structures found inside the axon terminals which contain chemicals called neurotransmitters
Synapse
Fluid-filled space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically. When a neuron fires, its axon terminals release neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Chemical messengers that allow neuron-to-neuron communication
Neurons communicate
One way
Electrical impulses into chemical signals
Electrical and Chemical Communication
INSIDE NEURONS, COMMUNICATION IS ELECTRICAL, BUT BETWEEN NEURONS, IT IS CHEMICAL VIA NTS ->WHEN RELEASED, NTS BIND WITH THE NEXT NEURON’S RECEPTOR SITES.THIS PROCESS IS HALTED BY REUPTAKE, WHEN NTS GO BACK INTO THE AXON TERMINAL.
Dendrites receive chemical signals
Axons transmit electrical charges
Axom terminals release chemicals
Each neurotransmitter has its own shape and have different binding shape that only specific chemicals can trigger.
Facts about Neuronal Communication
Some neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire (e.g., glutamate, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine); other neurotransmitters suppress firing (e.g., serotonin, GABA).
That is: Some neurons in a network release excitatory neurotransmitters and others inhibitory.
The balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters determines how often the neuron fires (called an “action potential”).
The balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters determines how often the neuron fires (called an “action potential”).
Chemical Communication
Psychoactive drugs impact mood, arousal, or behavior by acting as agonists or antagonists for NTs.
Agonists—increase NT activity
Antagonists—decrease NT activity
Electrifying Thought
Neurons respond to NTs by generating electrical activity.
When no NTs are acting on a neuron, it is at the resting potential.
When there is enough of a charge inside the neuron (threshold), an action potential will occur.
How Are Electrical Signals Generated?
An action potential is a sudden change in electrical charge that travels the length of the axon, which allows for signals to travel to distant regions of the cortex.
Action potentials are “All or None”, triggered when the threshold (–55 mV) is reached. This is followed by a refractory period.
All action potentials are of the same size!
With more excitatory inputs, a neuron will fire more frequently. Each time a neuron fires, it results in the release of neurotransmitters from its axon terminals.
How neurons communicate
Neurons respond to neurotransmitters by generating electrical activity
Resting potential
the state of a neuron when there are no neurotransmitters acting on it (i.e., no active input from other cells)
electrical charge difference (-70mV) across the neural membrane
Action potential
electric impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters that is followed by an absolute refractory period
Nerves work by reflecting on what we have learned about action potential as you are watching this video.
Connectivity:
“Neurons that fire together, wire together.” —Donald Hebb. Neuron that communicate with each other form an interconnected neural network.
Matter
Gray Matter:
Cell bodies that make up the surface of the neocortex.
It is called “gray” because it appears gray to the naked eye when looking at an actual brain.
White Matter:
Cell axons that reach across the brain to connect to other neurons (either nearby or far from the cell body). They appear white because of fatty myelin sheaths produced by glial cells that insulate the axon like an electrical wire.
Human Development: Nature vs. Nurture?
Genie’s extreme case provided the opportunity to witness and record the potential consequences of extreme social isolation
Nature (genes) and nurture (environment) both play a role in developmental outcome
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in phenotype without a change in genotype
Bidirectional Influences
12 Gene-environment interaction The impact of genes depends on the environment in which the behavior develops.
genetic predispositions can drive us to select and create particular environments
Developmental Milestones
6 month
Turns his head when you call his name
Smiles back at you
Responds to sound by making sound
Sits without support for a short period of time
Likes social play (games like peek a boo)
12 month
Uses simple gestures such as shaking head for no or waving bye bye
Pulls up to stand
Copies you during play
Responds when told no
Says mama or papa
18 month
Plays pretend (like talking on a toy phone)
Points to interesting things
Uses several single words to get what she wants
Walks without help
Looks at something when you points to it and say look
2 years
Uses 2 to 4 word phrases
Shows more interest in other children
Follows simple instructions
Kicks a ball
Points to something (like a toy or picture when you name it)
3 years
Shows affection for playmates
Uses 4 to 5 word sentences
Copies adults and playmates (like running when other children run)
Climbs well
Plays make-believe with dolls, animals and people (like feeding a teddy bear)
4 years
Follows 3-steps commands(like get dressed, comb your hair and wast your face)
Hops and can stand on one foot for up to 5 seconds
Uses 5 to 6 words sentence
Shares and takes turns with other children
Draw circles and squares.
Prenatal Development
It affects by
Nutritions
Zika virus
radiation
antibiotics (tetracycline)
medications (lithium)
cigarettes
teratogen: stimulus that impact the development of the baby in the womb
Universal Appearance of Reflexes
Automatic motor behaviors; often present at birth
Sucking, plantar, grasping
Reflex：
Sucking
Rooting
Stepping
Babinski/Plantar Reflex: when the infants feet get touched, toes open
Moro Reflex – Startled
Rasping reflect: holding the fingers
Motor Development in Infancy
Reflexes
automatic motor behaviors, often present at birth.
Sucking reflex
Rooting reflex
Motor behaviors
self-initiated body movements
Individual differences in achieving motor milestones
Culture: Variable Timing of Motor Milestones
Babies may be tightly swaddled to prevent movement, which may delay onset of sitting, walking etc.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive construction: children actively construct their understanding of the world
Schemas (organized ways of making sense of the world) change with ageAdaptation: assimilation & accommodation
cognitive equilibrium
Piaget’s Constructivism
``Children actively construct their understanding of the world via exploration and discovery
Schemas(图式)
Organized representations used to make sense of the world,updated via processes of assimilation(吸收) and accommodation（调解）.
Assimilation:
place new information into an existing “schema” See Zebra: “Look it is a horsey”
Accommodation:
update info you have
Piaget’s Cognitive Stages
Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years old
The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical action. An infant progresses from reflexives, instinctual action at birth to beginning of symbolic thought towards the end of the stage
Children only know what they can see
Lack object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
Lack deferred imitation—ability to perform an action previously observed
Object permanence
`Failure to look for an object hidden from view suggests a lack of understanding that the object continues to exist when out of sight
Preoperational stage: 2-7
The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
Object permanence develops
Egocentrism3 Mountains Problem
Inability to Conserve
Conservation Task
Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11
The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets
Can perform mental operations for actual events
Thought is logical, flexible, and organized
Can perform conservation tasks
Still poor at performing mental operations in abstract situations (need physical experience)
Formal Operational Stage: 11- adulthood
the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic and logical ways.
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
scientific thinking
formulate hypothesis
make logical, testable inferences
``systematically isolate variablespendulum problem
Propositional Thought
evaluating the logic of verbal statement
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Development is a function of society and culture—sociocultural theory
Development is continuous—does not occur in stages
Zone of Proximal Development
the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
Zone of Proximal Development
Skills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring
Learner needs help to master skills (experienced mentor)
Learning must be individualized
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development
The distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.
How do we learn within the ZPD?
Scaffolding (脚手架理论): Developmentally appropriate support that is tailored to the individual child’s needs in a specific learning context.
Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development
Physical reasoning
Object permanence actually emerges by 5 months (if tested without requiring physical search)
Infants possess naïve physics understanding (e.g., unsupported objects fall)
Concept of the self and others
Rudimentary sense of self as early as 3 months.
Theory of mind: the ability to reason about what other people know or believe.
Theory of Mind
Sally-Ann (False-belief task)test: Sally put the ball in the basket and Ann it put in the box. Sally will initially look for the ball in the basket, but the children do not know Sally could not see the transfer of the ball and think Sally should know the ball is in the box.
Children under 4 could not think in another’s perspective and understand another’s mental state.
It starts to develop at 4.
Attachment: Harlow’s Monkeys
Harlow (1959)—Rhesus monkey attachment study
Monkeys spent more time with cloth mother, especially when scared
Attachment responses increase when children start moving away from caregivers (at 8-12 months) and typically display separation anxiety
Separation anxiety occurs when infants cannot see or are separated from their attachment figures or left with babysitters
Attachment Styles
The Strange Situation Paradigm (Ainsworth, 1978)
Yields 4 types of Attachment:
Secure Attachment
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
Insecure-Anxious Attachment
Disorganized Attachment
Social Development
Some social behaviors are innate
Imprinting
phenomenon observed in birds in which babies begin to follow around and attach themselves to any large moving object in the vicinity during the hours immediately after hatching
`Konrad Lorenz’s geese
Stranger anxiety: a fear of strangers, developing around 8 months, same in all cultures.
Other social behaviors are learned
Attachment: the emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest
Moral Reasoning: why we behave in certain ways towards others
Moral Development: Heinz steals the drug
Stages of moral reasoning：
Preconventional (level I)
Stage 1 – Avoid Punishment
Doing the right thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment
Stage 2 – Quid Pro Quo
* “If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”
Conventional (level II)
Stage 3 – Social Relations
emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people close to one
Stage 4 – Rules and Law
Emphasis is on obeying laws,
respecting authority, and
performing one’s duties so that the social order is maintained.
Postconventional (level III)
Stage 5 – Relative Morality
Independent effort to think out what any society ought to value.
Stage 6 – Universal Morality
Equal respect for all.clearer and broader conception of universal principles (which include justice as well as individual rights)
Preconventional reasoning
Children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments
Conventional Reasoning
individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government
Postconventional Reasoning
individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code
Physical Development in Adolescence
Primary Sexual Characteristics: reproductive organs
Secondary Sexual Characteristics: visible outside of the body
Identity Development
Gender Identity
Psychology of Gender
Gender identity is the personal sense of one’s own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person’s assigned sex at birth or can differ from it. Gender is often associated with stereotypes that may not reflect an individual’s identity.
When do kids learn about gender?
From 3 and 6 years, children learn that gender doesn’t change simply by changing external attributes (e.g., clothes, toys). Having developed gender constancy, they believe that a person’s gender is permanent (but also grasp that it might not match one’s biological sex)
Intersectional Identities
Identity has many different facets. Gender, ethnicity, religion, sexuality, body type, languages, hobbies, and career can all impact identity to varying degrees across individuals.
