Test 3

Question 1

Difficulties of Explaining Emotions

Answer 1

Hard to explain
My definition does not equal your definition
Difficult to standardize

Question 2

3 dimensions of emotions:

Answer 2

Valence:Positive or negative
Happy vs sad Arousal: High or low Excited or relax
Approach or withdraw

Question 3

Components of emotion

Answer 3

Affective component
Immediate positive or negative feeling (下意识反应) Experience Develops very quickly (maybe even before the event is understood)
To manipulate emotion, we use: Evocative Stimuli Images International Affective Picture System Film

Disgust: Car accidents, amputations

Happiness: Puppies!
```Desire: Chocolate dripping, Attractive people
Measured by Self report.

Question 4

Physical Reaction

Answer 4

Heart rate
Blood pressure
Breathing rate
Blood rate
Blood flow to the skin (blush)
Alertness of eyes
Facial display
Skin conductance response (sweat)
‘Caused by chemical changes in the nervous system
‘Relatively fast, but difficult to interpret:
‘‘Generally: there are not different patterns of response for different emotions
‘‘Look at differences within an individual from baseline

Question 5

Some emotions are different:

Answer 5

Generally: there are not different patterns of response for different emotions
Look at differences within an individual from baseline
Some emotions are different:
Anger, fear, and sadness
Greater heart rate than disgust
Fear and disgust
More galvanic skin response than sadness or anger
Blushing
Only with embarrassment
Parasympathetic arousal (calming)
Prosocial emotions like compassion
Watch a video and measure:
EKG: Changes in heart rate
Skin Conductance Response: Increased sweating
Facial Movement Sensors: Involuntary smiles
Pupil Dilation: Focus attention

Question 6

Evolutionary Basis of Emotion
Charles Darwin and Emotion

Answer 6

Expression of Emotions in Man and Animal, 1872
Emotions + expressions are universal and evidence of the “unity of mankind” Animals and humans may share some emotions (and expressions) Capacity to detect and respond to stimuli necessary for survival
``E.g. Approach food, avoid threat

Question 7

Discrete Emotions Theory

Answer 7

Humans experience a small number of distinct (basic) emotions that they can combine in complex ways.
Distinguishing Between Types of Emotions:
Primary emotions: emotions that are evolutionarily adaptive, shared across cultures, and associated with specific physical states Secondary emotions: blends of primary emotions

Question 8

Culture and Emotion

Answer 8

Darwin pointed to similar facial expressions across cultures
Universal facial expressions
Facial expressions labeled as the same emotion across cultures Paul Ekman in New Guinea
Display rules: one of the cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions.
Study of Americans vs Japanese

Question 9

James-Lange Theory

Answer 9

Result of physiological Reactions to events
Events is necessary to occur emotion and dominates the emotion

Question 10

Cannon Bard Theory

Answer 10

Event occurs
Thalamus receives sensory input
Simultaneously, the autonomic nervous system responds and the cortex interprets situation

Question 11

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Answer 11

Emotion is based on two factors:
Physiological arousal and Cognitive labeling
Whenever a person feels aroused, they search the immediate environment for cues to label their state of arousal. Consequently, how stimuli in the environment are perceived is influenced by one’s state of arousal.

Question 12

Dutton & Aron (1974) (吊桥效应)

Answer 12

Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety.
Males were more likely to call a female research assistant if they had just crossed a fear-inducing bridge than if they had crossed a safe bridge.

Question 13

Unconscious Influences on Emotion

Answer 13

Mere exposure effect:
Repeated Exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably towards them Subliminal: stimuli that are below the threshold for awareness.

Question 14

Emotional Expression Through Body Language

Answer 14

Nonverbal leakage: an unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behavior

Question 15

Disorders of emotion

Answer 15

When are they dysfunctional:
Depression:
Increased sadness:
Wrong context Long lasting
`Intensely felt
Reduced happiness/pleasure (anhedonia)
Altered neural responding to and processing of emotion

Question 16

Truth telling: Darwin

Answer 16

The face gives us away!
1/5th to 1/25th of a second: TRUE emotion shows
Micro-expressions Other signs to distinguish sincere from insincere: Morphology
Symmetry Duration
`Temporal Patterning

Question 17

Truth telling
Morphology:

Answer 17

Eye crinkle in smiling
Hard to Fake!
Fake and genuine smiles are controlled by different parts of the brain.
Fake smiles because they are conscious decisions,
Follow a conscious pathway and contract only the zygomaticus major in the cheeks Genuine smiles follow automatic pathway Trigger orbicularis oculi and the pars orbitalis to move the mouth muscles, cheeks, crease eyes
The end of eyebrows dip slightly too.

Question 18

Truth telling
Symmetry

Answer 18

Sincere expressions are more symmetrical
The left side of our face is usually more expressive
`Their Left is our Right…
This is especially noticeable for voluntary / forced emotional expressions

Question 19

Truth telling
Duration :

Answer 19

Sincere expression generally last from 0.5-5 second
Temporal Patterning

Question 20

Others about Truth telling

Answer 20

Emotions aren’t just hard to hide on our face…
Liars speak more slowly, take longer to respond, and give less detail.
They’re less fluent, less engaging, more uncertain, more tense, and less pleasant.
You’d think this would make it easy to identify when we are being lied to….
NOPE. Barely better than chance.
People want to believe others are honest…
Same with micro-expressions
People get signs mixed up
Fast talking, they must be lying – WRONG!
Slow talking, they seem honest– WRONG again!

Question 21

What makes you happy
The realities:（真的让你开心的）

Answer 21

Marriage
Friendships
College
Religion
Exercise
Gratitude
Experiences
Flow

Question 22

What makes you happy
The Myths (不是真的让你开心)

Answer 22

The prime determinant of happiness is what happens to us
Money makes us happy
Happiness declines in old age
People on the West Coast are the happiest

Question 23

What makes you happy
Positive Psychology

Answer 23

Emphasizes human strengths, such as resilience, coping, life satisfaction, love, and happiness.
Happiness correlated with longevity
Broaden and build theory: Happiness predisposes us to think more openly, allowing us to see the “big picture” we might have otherwise overlooked
Happiness is the only completely positive primary emotion

Question 24

What does happiness buy us?

Answer 24

Happiness predisposes us to think more openly, allowing us to see the “big picture” we might have otherwise overlooked
Happiness is the only completely positive primary emotion
Happiness correlates with longevity

Question 25

Choosing Mates

Answer 25

Social Influences on Interpersonal Attraction
Proximity: when near becomes dear
··How can you start a relationship when you’ve never met the person?
··Slightly different today with the internet…
··But still: you have to see the person sometimes…
··Otherwise what’s the point?
··War Letters
Similarity: like attracts like
··We like to think opposites attract…
··Even “Opposites” have things in common (Shared views, priorities, etc.)
··Differences produce opportunities for disagreement
··Reciprocity: all give and no take does not a good relationship make
··Balance is key- giving all the time makes us uncomfortable
··But so does receiving…
··Unfair / lack of balance is not sustainable.
Physical attraction: like it or not, we do judge books by their covers
··Study - randomly paired people to be partners at a dance
··What predicted if people decided to have a second date?
··How physically attractive they found their partner.
Sex differences in what we find attractive: nature or nurture?
··Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures
··Men preferred attractive physical features suggesting youth and health
··Women preferred resources and social status

Question 26

MOTIVATION

Answer 26

A Beginner’s Guide
·Drive reduction theory: Certain drives, like hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration, motivate us to minimize aversive states.
·We are motivated to maintain a given level of psychological homeostasis.

Incentive Theories: Positive Motivation
·We are often motivated by positive goals.
··Intrinsic motivation: motivated by internal goals.
···E.g. mastering the material
··Extrinsic motivation: motivated by external goals.
···E.g. graduation
··Some research undermines incentive theories.
···Once we receive reinforcement for performing a behavior, we expect that reinforcement again.

Question 27

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 27

Only a few people are self-actualized, as many of us must focus on needs at lower levels (drive reduction) rather than at higher levels (internal and external
goals for achievement
Love is multi-faceted
*Lust (sex drive),
*romance (obsession), and attachment (long-term) don’t always go together!
People can love more than one person in different ways!

Question 28

Localization of Function

Answer 28

identifying brain areas that are active during a specific psychological task
pop psychology and the media oversimplify matters
·areas likely work together to produce our perceptions
Debunking: The “Are You Right Brained or Left Brained” Myth (假的)

Question 29

Our Nervous System

Answer 29

Central Nervous System (CNS):
·part of the nervous system containing the brain and spinal cord that controls the mind and behavior. It includes
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
·nerves in the body that extend outside the central nervous system

Question 30

Central nervous system

Answer 30

Brain
Basal Ganglia
Limbic System
Brain stem
Corpus callosum
Spinal chord

Question 31

Brain

Answer 31

Cerebral Cortex （大脑皮层）: the outermost covering of the brain. Also called gray matter。It contains:
`Neocortex: most recently developed cortex

`Cerebral hemispheres: left and right

`Corpus callosum: connects the two hemispheres and permits communication between them

`Frontal Lobe (前额叶)：

Prefrontal cortex: executive functioning,reasoning, planning

Marshmallow Test: A test of delayed gratification (self-control).（小孩子在通过闻，吃小部分和把玩棉花糖来忍耐不能立刻吃到棉花糖）
``Motor cortex: sends signals to muscles for voluntary movement.

Functions:
reasoning planning
movement emotions
problem solving language (Broca’s area)
``Case Study of Phineas Gage：（Prefrontal cortex）

Parietal Lobe （顶叶）
integrates vision, spacial, touch, and motor information perception of stimuli：
movement
orientation recognition

Temporal Lobe（颞叶）
Auditory perception and recognition language comprehension
semantic and episodic memory perception and recognition of auditory stimuli
autobiographical
memory speech & language comprehension (Wernicke’s area)

Occipital Lobe (枕叶)：
Visual processing

Question 32

Phantom Limb Patients (幻肢痛)

Answer 32

Phantom limb syndrome is a condition in which patients experience sensations, whether painful or otherwise, in a limb that does not exist.
It has been reported to occur in 80-100% of amputees（被截肢者）, and typically has a chronic course, often resistant to treatment.

Question 33

Limbic System（大脑边缘系统)

Answer 33

emotion center of the brain
Networked with parts of the peripheral nervous system to influence blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, the endocrine system, etc.

Information about our internal state.
thalamus: relay station for incoming sensory information

hypothalamus: thirst, hunger, sexual motivation, body temperature, control of the autonomic nervous system

amygdala: emotion, especially fear
and excitement

hippocampus: memory, learning, spatial relationships

Question 34

Language Processing Areas of the Brain:

Answer 34

Broca’s Area: Words and pronunciation of language(frontal)
Wernicke’s Area: Comprehension and understanding of language.(temporal)

Question 35

Brain Stem

Answer 35

Basic bodily functions: breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness, whether one is awake or asleep

Cerebellum(小脑)
Part of the hindbrain that controls balance of the body and maintains muscle coordination

Pons
Part of the hindbrain that relays messages between cerebellum and the cortex.

Medulla
Part of the hindbrain where nerves cross from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain, controls heart beat, breathing and swallowing

Reticular activating system
A system of nerves that running through the medulla pons and the midbrain to the cerebral cortex, controlling arousal and attention.

Question 36

Corpus callosum

Answer 36

It connects the two hemispheres and permits communication between them.

Question 37

Split Brain Patient

Answer 37

When the word appears at the right side the participant is able to answer what he saw because the left hemisphere is dominated for verbal processions.
However, he had difficulty answering the word flashed at the left because the left hemisphere is not connected to the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere is dominant for creativity so the patient is able to draw.

Question 38

Neurons

Answer 38

Nerve cells specialized for communication.
The brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons.

Cell body
Central region of the neuron that manufactures new cell components
Makes proteins, replenishes molecules vital to cell function
Separated from outside by neuronal membrane

Dendrites (神经突触)
Branchlike structures jutting off of the soma that receive messages from other neurons

Axon (轴突)
portion of the neuron that sends signals

Myelin Sheath
type of glial cells that are wrapped around the axon
Speed up neural transmission by helping neurons conduct electricity more efficiently

Axon terminal
end of axon which contains synaptic vesicles

Synaptic Vesicles
Saclike structures found inside the axon terminals which contain chemicals called neurotransmitters
Synapse
Fluid-filled space between two connecting neurons through which messages are transmitted chemically. When a neuron fires, its axon terminals release neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Chemical messengers that allow neuron-to-neuron communication

Question 39

Neurons communicate

Answer 39

One way
Electrical impulses into chemical signals

Question 40

Electrical and Chemical Communication

Answer 40

INSIDE NEURONS, COMMUNICATION IS ELECTRICAL, BUT BETWEEN NEURONS, IT IS CHEMICAL VIA NTS ->WHEN RELEASED, NTS BIND WITH THE NEXT NEURON’S RECEPTOR SITES.THIS PROCESS IS HALTED BY REUPTAKE, WHEN NTS GO BACK INTO THE AXON TERMINAL.
Dendrites receive chemical signals
Axons transmit electrical charges
Axom terminals release chemicals
Each neurotransmitter has its own shape and have different binding shape that only specific chemicals can trigger.

Question 41

Facts about Neuronal Communication

Answer 41

Some neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire (e.g., glutamate, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine); other neurotransmitters suppress firing (e.g., serotonin, GABA).
That is: Some neurons in a network release excitatory neurotransmitters and others inhibitory.
The balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters determines how often the neuron fires (called an “action potential”).
The balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters determines how often the neuron fires (called an “action potential”).

Question 42

Chemical Communication

Answer 42

Psychoactive drugs impact mood, arousal, or behavior by acting as agonists or antagonists for NTs.
Agonists—increase NT activity
Antagonists—decrease NT activity

Question 43

Electrifying Thought

Answer 43

Neurons respond to NTs by generating electrical activity.
When no NTs are acting on a neuron, it is at the resting potential.
When there is enough of a charge inside the neuron (threshold), an action potential will occur.
How Are Electrical Signals Generated?
An action potential is a sudden change in electrical charge that travels the length of the axon, which allows for signals to travel to distant regions of the cortex.
Action potentials are “All or None”, triggered when the threshold (–55 mV) is reached. This is followed by a refractory period.
All action potentials are of the same size!
With more excitatory inputs, a neuron will fire more frequently. Each time a neuron fires, it results in the release of neurotransmitters from its axon terminals.

Question 44

How neurons communicate

Answer 44

Neurons respond to neurotransmitters by generating electrical activity

Resting potential
the state of a neuron when there are no neurotransmitters acting on it (i.e., no active input from other cells)
electrical charge difference (-70mV) across the neural membrane

Action potential
electric impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters that is followed by an absolute refractory period

Nerves work by reflecting on what we have learned about action potential as you are watching this video.

Connectivity:
“Neurons that fire together, wire together.” —Donald Hebb. Neuron that communicate with each other form an interconnected neural network.

Question 45

Matter

Answer 45

Gray Matter:
Cell bodies that make up the surface of the neocortex.
It is called “gray” because it appears gray to the naked eye when looking at an actual brain.
White Matter:
Cell axons that reach across the brain to connect to other neurons (either nearby or far from the cell body). They appear white because of fatty myelin sheaths produced by glial cells that insulate the axon like an electrical wire.

Question 46

Human Development: Nature vs. Nurture?

Answer 46

Genie’s extreme case provided the opportunity to witness and record the potential consequences of extreme social isolation

Nature (genes) and nurture (environment) both play a role in developmental outcome

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in phenotype without a change in genotype

Question 47

Bidirectional Influences

Answer 47

12 Gene-environment interaction The impact of genes depends on the environment in which the behavior develops.

genetic predispositions can drive us to select and create particular environments

Question 48

Developmental Milestones

Answer 48

6 month
Turns his head when you call his name
Smiles back at you
Responds to sound by making sound
Sits without support for a short period of time
Likes social play (games like peek a boo)
12 month
Uses simple gestures such as shaking head for no or waving bye bye
Pulls up to stand
Copies you during play
Responds when told no
Says mama or papa
18 month
Plays pretend (like talking on a toy phone)
Points to interesting things
Uses several single words to get what she wants
Walks without help
Looks at something when you points to it and say look
2 years
Uses 2 to 4 word phrases
Shows more interest in other children
Follows simple instructions
Kicks a ball
Points to something (like a toy or picture when you name it)
3 years
Shows affection for playmates
Uses 4 to 5 word sentences
Copies adults and playmates (like running when other children run)
Climbs well
Plays make-believe with dolls, animals and people (like feeding a teddy bear)
4 years
Follows 3-steps commands(like get dressed, comb your hair and wast your face)
Hops and can stand on one foot for up to 5 seconds
Uses 5 to 6 words sentence
Shares and takes turns with other children
Draw circles and squares.

Question 48

Prenatal Development

Answer 48

It affects by
Nutritions
Zika virus
radiation
antibiotics (tetracycline)
medications (lithium)
cigarettes
teratogen: stimulus that impact the development of the baby in the womb

Question 49

Universal Appearance of Reflexes

Answer 49

Automatic motor behaviors; often present at birth
Sucking, plantar, grasping

Reflex：
Sucking
Rooting
Stepping
Babinski/Plantar Reflex: when the infants feet get touched, toes open
Moro Reflex – Startled
Rasping reflect: holding the fingers

Question 50

Motor Development in Infancy

Answer 50

Reflexes
automatic motor behaviors, often present at birth.
Sucking reflex
Rooting reflex

Motor behaviors
self-initiated body movements

Individual differences in achieving motor milestones

Question 50

Culture: Variable Timing of Motor Milestones

Answer 50

Babies may be tightly swaddled to prevent movement, which may delay onset of sitting, walking etc.

Question 51

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Answer 51

Cognitive construction: children actively construct their understanding of the world
Schemas (organized ways of making sense of the world) change with age
Adaptation: assimilation & accommodation cognitive equilibrium

Piaget’s Constructivism
``Children actively construct their understanding of the world via exploration and discovery

Question 52

Schemas(图式)

Answer 52

Organized representations used to make sense of the world,updated via processes of assimilation(吸收) and accommodation（调解）.
Assimilation:
place new information into an existing “schema” See Zebra: “Look it is a horsey”
Accommodation:
update info you have

Question 53

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages

Answer 53

Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years old
The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical action. An infant progresses from reflexives, instinctual action at birth to beginning of symbolic thought towards the end of the stage
Children only know what they can see
Lack object permanence—the understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
Lack deferred imitation—ability to perform an action previously observed
Object permanence
`Failure to look for an object hidden from view suggests a lack of understanding that the object continues to exist when out of sight

Preoperational stage: 2-7
The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
Object permanence develops
Egocentrism
3 Mountains Problem Inability to Conserve Conservation Task

Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11
The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets
Can perform mental operations for actual events
Thought is logical, flexible, and organized
Can perform conservation tasks
Still poor at performing mental operations in abstract situations (need physical experience)

Formal Operational Stage: 11- adulthood
the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic and logical ways.
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
scientific thinking
formulate hypothesis make logical, testable inferences
``systematically isolate variables
pendulum problem Propositional Thought evaluating the logic of verbal statement

Question 54

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Answer 54

Development is a function of society and culture—sociocultural theory
Development is continuous—does not occur in stages
Zone of Proximal Development
the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers

Question 55

Zone of Proximal Development

Answer 55

Skills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring
Learner needs help to master skills (experienced mentor)
Learning must be individualized

Question 56

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

Answer 56

The distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

Question 57

How do we learn within the ZPD?

Answer 57

Scaffolding (脚手架理论): Developmentally appropriate support that is tailored to the individual child’s needs in a specific learning context.

Question 58

Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development

Answer 58

Physical reasoning
Object permanence actually emerges by 5 months (if tested without requiring physical search)
Infants possess naïve physics understanding (e.g., unsupported objects fall)

Concept of the self and others
Rudimentary sense of self as early as 3 months.
Theory of mind: the ability to reason about what other people know or believe.
Theory of Mind

Sally-Ann (False-belief task)test: Sally put the ball in the basket and Ann it put in the box. Sally will initially look for the ball in the basket, but the children do not know Sally could not see the transfer of the ball and think Sally should know the ball is in the box.
Children under 4 could not think in another’s perspective and understand another’s mental state.
It starts to develop at 4.

Question 59

Attachment: Harlow’s Monkeys

Answer 59

Harlow (1959)—Rhesus monkey attachment study
Monkeys spent more time with cloth mother, especially when scared

Attachment responses increase when children start moving away from caregivers (at 8-12 months) and typically display separation anxiety

Separation anxiety occurs when infants cannot see or are separated from their attachment figures or left with babysitters

Attachment Styles
The Strange Situation Paradigm (Ainsworth, 1978)
Yields 4 types of Attachment:
Secure Attachment
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
Insecure-Anxious Attachment
Disorganized Attachment

Question 59

Social Development

Answer 59

Some social behaviors are innate
Imprinting
phenomenon observed in birds in which babies begin to follow around and attach themselves to any large moving object in the vicinity during the hours immediately after hatching
`Konrad Lorenz’s geese

Stranger anxiety: a fear of strangers, developing around 8 months, same in all cultures.

Other social behaviors are learned
Attachment: the emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

Moral Reasoning: why we behave in certain ways towards others

Question 60

Moral Development: Heinz steals the drug

Answer 60

Stages of moral reasoning：
Preconventional (level I)
Stage 1 – Avoid Punishment
Doing the right thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment
Stage 2 – Quid Pro Quo
* “If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”

Conventional (level II)
Stage 3 – Social Relations
emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people close to one
Stage 4 – Rules and Law
Emphasis is on obeying laws,
respecting authority, and
performing one’s duties so that the social order is maintained.

Postconventional (level III)
Stage 5 – Relative Morality
Independent effort to think out what any society ought to value.
Stage 6 – Universal Morality
Equal respect for all.clearer and broader conception of universal principles (which include justice as well as individual rights)

Preconventional reasoning
Children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments
Conventional Reasoning
individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government
Postconventional Reasoning
individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code

Question 61

Physical Development in Adolescence

Answer 61

Primary Sexual Characteristics: reproductive organs
Secondary Sexual Characteristics: visible outside of the body

Question 62

Identity Development

Answer 62

Gender Identity
Psychology of Gender
Gender identity is the personal sense of one’s own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person’s assigned sex at birth or can differ from it. Gender is often associated with stereotypes that may not reflect an individual’s identity.

When do kids learn about gender?
From 3 and 6 years, children learn that gender doesn’t change simply by changing external attributes (e.g., clothes, toys). Having developed gender constancy, they believe that a person’s gender is permanent (but also grasp that it might not match one’s biological sex)

Question 63

Intersectional Identities

Answer 63

Identity has many different facets. Gender, ethnicity, religion, sexuality, body type, languages, hobbies, and career can all impact identity to varying degrees across individuals.