Test revision Flashcards
Explain what is meant by SLT and the stages of it
and also explain the power of vicarious reinforcement
Bandura came up with the idea that individuals learn through observation and behaviour
Vicarous reinforcement - imitation is more likely to occur when the person observes their role model perform a certain action getting a reward. this motivates them to do the same
the 4 stages are:
retention - ability to remember the behaviour
attention - seeing the behaviour
reproduction - doing the same behaviour as the role model
motivation - if you have the motivation to do the behaviour / inspired or not
Bandura did a research where he made kids watch an adult show aggression. These kids would then do the same act and act furious.
in 1965 bandura also showed that children behave differently when people show aggression are punished and people who don’t show aggression are not punished
What are some strengths of EWT
Real world application
what are some weaknesses of EWT
lacks external validity
lab studies suffer from demand characteristics
Loftus and Palmer used artificial tasks (lacks ecological validity)
What are the advantages of the psychodynamic approach
case study to support it
developed free association
What are the disadvantages of the psychodynamic approach
case study is not replicable therefore unreliable
methods were not scientific meaning its less reliable
Opernant conditioning explain
Skinners procedure of rats and reinforcement
What is a vicarious reinforcement?
its when somebody observes their role model act in a particular way and receive a reward then that observer will copy and do the same act for the reward/ basically imitation is more likely to occur when a person observes a role model receiving a reward for a certain action, which motivates that person to do the same
What are the advantages of Behaviourist approach?
High controlled environment
Real world application - it can help to treat disorders
What are the disadvantages?
It cant be generalised because the test was done on animals
It is deterministic
It does not promote free will
What are the strengths of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
promotes free will
What are the weaknesses of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ?
unrealistic
What is incongruence
Incongruence is the increasing of the difference between your perceived self and your ideal (best) self
Congruence is the opposite
What are advantages of Roger’s CCT?
It is positive and motivational and displayed how humans are able to solve their own issues.
What are the drawbacks to Roger’s CCT?
It cannot be generalised to every culture as people have different ways of living and viewing life.
What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach
abstract model
deterministic
reductionist
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach
Scientific methods which allows for higher replicability and more controlled research environments (RELIABILITY)
Has real-life applications (e.g. eye-witness memory)
What is unconditional positive regard and why did Rogers employ this in his therapy?
To love yourself and everyone else without any conditions. Rogers used this because it would produce less incongruence from his clients
What is a schema, and what are its features?
A schema is a cognitive framework that aids us to organise and interpret information.
- Based upon previous experiences
- Have the ability to evolve with experience
- Allows us to make cognitive shortcuts when interpreting info.
What are the advantages of the Biological approach?
scientific and can help treatment
what are the disadvantages of the biological approach
Deterministic; no free will
Reductionist- dehumanising by not considering emotions
Low ecological validity due to being conducted in a lab
What are the types of comformity
Compliance - to appear to agree with others, whilst disagreeing in private
Identification - to agree with others both in private and public (temporary)
Internalisation - to agree with others both in private and public (permanently)
What is the 2 process theory
Normative - When we desire to be liked by the majority group so we follow them even though we may not agree (temporary)
Informational - When we look to the majority group for information of things we are unsure about (permanent)
What was the procedure to the experiment?
Asch’s had created a vision test where participants were to compare line lengths. Asch chose 50 male college students to participate. However, he had put confederates (actors), who had already submitted their answer in advance, in the sample of students to test whether the real participants would conform to the majority voted answer, even if it was wrong. The real participant would vote their answer 2nd to last and each participant would say their answer out loud.
How can we evaluate Asch study
Strengths:
- Performed in Lab; controlled setting (Reliable and replicable)
Weaknesses:
- Low mundane realism
- Gender bias (only males)
- Cultural bias (American only)
- Age bias (only from college)
- Artificial tasks used by Asch does not reflect every day life choices (ungeneralisable)
- Morally questionable as the real participants are being deceived and there is no protection from psychological or physical harm
What was Zimbardos Method
The participants were all male students at Stanford university. They volunteered to take part (PAID) and randomly allocated to two groups prisoners and guards. The prisoners were to spend 2 weeks locked in cells in the basement of the university. The prison guards were to keep them under control.
Prisoners were unexpectedly arrested at home and taken to the prison; they were stripped, deloused and given uniform and a number.
The guards were given uniforms, batons and mirrored sunglasses to dehumanize them
Zimbardos results
The experiment was called off after 6 days. The guards became so brutal that two prisoners had a nervous breakdown. The prisoners became apathetic and submissive to the guards.
Strengths and limits of Zimbardo experiment
Strengths:
- Control over variables
- Real world applications (Abu Ghraib Prison)
- High mundane realism
Limits:
- Investigator effects as he was part of the study
- Lacked realism
- DRIPP
- Lacks temporal validity (Reicher and Haslam)
What procedure did Milgram use
Milgram used a volunteer sample of 40 male students studying at Yale university. The participants would be “randomly allocated” to the role of teacher and student (the ppt was always the teacher and the students were all confederates). The student was taken into a room and electrodes were attached to his arm; the researcher and ppt went into the room next door and the ppt was to administer electric shocks based upon the response of the student in a test. The voltage was to increase if the student continuously answered incorrectly from 15V -> 450V (Death)
Findings of Milgram
Milgram predicted 2% of ppts would shock up to the highest level. However, all participants went up to 300V and 65% shocked up to 450V
What were the types of variations of the Obedience study and examples?
Types:
- Proximity (Teacher and student being in the same room caused lower obedience)
- Location (A more remote area caused a drop in obedience)
- Uniform (Casual clothing caused a lower rate of obedience). The experimenter was wearing a grey coat and he made an excuse to leave for a phone call and a guy wearing casual clothes replaced him obedience rates dropped3
Examples:
- Bickman - Ppts were more likely to obey a researcher dressed as a guard (80%) rather than as a milkman or civilian (40%) (Uniform)
- Hofling et al - 21/22 nurses obeyed a Doctor without hesitation giving a lethal dose to a patient (Location)
What are the strengths and limits of Milgram’s Obedience study?
Strengths:
- Lab study
- Real life applications
- Volunteer sample
Limits:
- Low mundane realism
- Gender bias
- Ethics (DRIPP)
What are the type of factors affecting obedience
Situational: explanation that focuses on influences that stem from the environment and scenario a person is in
Dispositional: explanation of individual behaviour caused by internal characteristics
What was Adornos Procedure
His sample was 2000 white Americans and recorded their unconscious attitudes towards other racial groups.
Developed an Fascism scale to measure the relationship between personality and prejudice
What were Adornos findings
Those who scored higher on the F-scale identified with the strong and disliked the weak
They had a fixed and distinctive stereotypes of other groups
There was a strong correlation between authoritarianism and prejudice
What are the strengths and limits of Adorno (1950)?
Strengths;
- Milgram (1961) supports Adorno’s findings
- There is abundant evidence that people who are more prejudiced have been raised as Adorno described
Limits:
- The sample is biased (Gender, Culture) meaning ungeneralisable
- Correlation does not equal causation
What is the Locus of control and the types?
Rotter proposed the LoC as a concept of internal control versus external;
- People with EXTERNAL LoC believe everything that happens is outside of their control
- People with INTERNAL LoC believe things that happen to them are largely controlled by themselves
Rotter concluded people with high internal LoC are more likely able to resist social pressure to conform/obey
What are the strengths and limits of Social support?
Strengths:
- Real world research support (pregnant women, social pressure to smoke)
- Research support for dissenting peers (Gamson et al)
What are the strengths and limits of Locus of control?
Strengths:
- Research support (Holland repeated Milgram but tested the ppts LoC, 37% Internal disobeyed and 23% external disobeyed)
Limits:
- Research against (Twenge et al took data from LoC studies over 40 yr period, more external LoC people resisted social influence)
What are the 3 processes for Minority Influence
Consistency:
- The minority must be consistent in their views; by agreement between people in the minority (synchronic) or being consistent over time (diachronic)
Commitment:
- Being willing to suffer or give up something, displaying risk in your protests demonstrates commitment
Flexibility:
- The minority’s beliefs should not be rigid or dogmatic; the minority should be ready to adapt their view and accept reasonable and valid counter arguments
Explain Moscovicis procedure
moscovici et al showed that a consistent minority had a greater effect on people with an inconsistent opinion
for example his procedure was that he displayed a blue shade and participants had to try and tell which was the colour
2 confederates were in this group and they CONSISTENTLY claimed that the slide /colour was green
In another condition, other confederates were inconsistently saying that the colour of the slide was green and others said it was blue.
the results showed that the participants were more likely to agree with the consistent group 8% compared to the inconsistent group 1%
this demonstrates that consistency is crucial for minority to be effective
Wood et al carried out a meta analysis of almost 100 similar studies and found that minorities who were as being consistent is a major factor in minority influence
What are the strengths and limits of Reductionism and Holism?
Strengths:
- R is more reliable as it is scientific
- H promotes mental health
Limits:
- R is too simplistic and ignores nurture
- H is unscientific which means less reliability
What is the phonological loop
Phonological loop - 1st slave system, deals with auditory information and preserves word order; limited capacity, acoustically coded, very short duration, Baddeley divided into:
- Phonological store
- Articulatory process
What is the sensory register’s role + features?
Where all information from environment enters
Has several registers
Coding is modality specific
Duration is less than half a second
Capacity is very high
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the MSM of memory?
Strengths:
- Supported by empirical research (Baddeley) and case studies (HM)
Weaknesses:
- Over-simplified model
- Low ecologically valid tests
- Case studies are ungeneralisable
-Peterson uses artificial tasks
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the types of LTM?
Strengths:
- Case studies support it (HM, Clive wearing)
- Neuroimaging supports it (Buckner and Peterson)
Weaknesses:
- Case studies are ungeneralisable and unreplicable (less reliable)
-Tulving suggested that there might be only two types of LTM
What is the Visuospatial sketchpad?
Visuospatial sketchpad - 2nd slave system, it stores visual and spatial information:
- Visual = what things look like
- Spatial = relationships between objects
limited capacity (3-4 objects), modality specific (visual), Logie divided into:
- Visuo-cache
- Inner scribe for spatial relations
What is the episodic buffer
Episodic buffer - 3rd slave system, deals with specific types of information, acts as an extra storage system and integrates information form all other areas ; limited capacity (4 chunks), any modality
Strengths and limits of WMM
Strength:
- Research support (Baddeley and Hitch - True or False task)
- Case studies support (KF)
Limits:
- Lack of clarity over the nature of CE (Baddeley)
What is Retroactive interference?
Retroactive interference: A current attempt to learn something that interferes with your ability to recall past learning
- Muller and Pilzecker - In condition A, ppts had 6 mins to learn nonsense syllables, then a retention interval, then recall
In condition B, it was the same task but during retention, ppts were to describe a painting
What is Proactive interference?
Proactive interference: When past learning interferes with current attempts to learn something
- Underwood - He gave the experimental group a list of nonsense syllables to remember and tested 24hrs later. The results were much worse than expected, so he concluded that the students were confused due to memory test experience in the past
What are the strengths and limits of types of Interference ?
Strengths:
- Studies were lab based
- Real world applications (e.g. Baddeley and Hitch - Rugby)
Limits:
- It is artificial and lacks mundane realism
What is Context dependent forgetting?
This is when the environment is the cue for remembering, and if the environment changes then the information is forgotten
- Godden and Baddeley: Deep sea divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and they were asked to recall either underwater or on land. When the environmental learning and recall matched, there was more words recalled
What is state dependent forgetting
This is when the person’s state of mind is the cue for remembering information (e.g. happy)
- Carter and Cassaday: Ppts had to learn words and recall a list of words in a drowsy condition (drugged) vs a normal state. The mismatch of states in learning and recall caused significantly worse recall
Strengths and limits of retrieval failure
Strength:
- Real world application (cues can help remember things)
- Supporting research (Godden and Baddeley)
Limits:
- Context effects depend on the type of memory being tested (Recognition vs Recall)
What are the 2 types of misleading information
Leading question: The way a question is phrased may mislead a eyewitness to change their testimony (Loftus and Palmer - Car crash speed estimate)
Post event discussion: When discussing with another witnesses, their testimony may distort your answer (Gabbert et al - Crime filmed from different POV)
What are the strengths and limits of EWT: Misleading information?
Strengths:
- Real world application (questions must be asked more carefully in interrogations)
- Supporting research (Gabbert et al)
Limits:
- Low ecological validity
- Demand characteristics (Lab setting)
What are the positive effects of Anxiety on EWT?
Positive effects:
- Witnessing a stressful event causes a fight or flight response, this increases alertness and may improve memory.
- Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study based on a real shooting. There were 13 ppts that witnessed it and interviewed the ppts. They found that the witnesses were very accurate especially the ones with the highest level of anxiety
What are the negative effects of Anxiety on EWT?
Negative effects:
- Anxiety causes physiological arousal in the body which prevents us to pay attention to important cues, making recall worse
- Johnson and Scott (1976) investigated this by putting ppts in a room while in one condition they heard a casual conversation, after they see a man walking from the room with a pen and greasy hand. In condition 2, the ppts heard a violent conversation next door and then a man walked out with a knife in hand, covered in blood.
- The ppts who were able to identify the man from 50 photos in condition 1 was 49% and in condition 2, it was 33%. This means the higher the anxiety level the worse the ability to remember
What are the strengths and limits of EWT: Anxiety?
Strengths:
- Research on positive and negative effects of Anxiety on memory (Johnson and Scott)
Limits:
- J&S study may not have tested anxiety but unusualness (ppts focused on the weapon because they were shocked not scared)
What are the strengths and limits of the cognitive interview?
Strengths:
- Supporting research (Kohnken et al - CI gave 41% increase in accuracy compared to police interview)
Limits:
- No format makes it more difficult to make conclusions
- Time consuming (it requires special training to make witness relax)
- Some elements are ineffective (RE and RC produced the best recall)
