Test I: Ch 1,4-6 Flashcards
3 Main Concepts
Complementary of Structure & Function (all structures work together)
Emergent Properties (hierarchy of structural relationships)
Homeostasis (internal balance)
Levels of Organization
Chemical => Cellular => Tissue => Organ => Organ System => Organism
Properties
Organization
Homeostasis
E Processing
Response to changes in environment
Reproduction
Growth & Development
Evolution
Anatomical Position
standing, facing forward, hands at sides, palms facing forward, feet together
Supine
lying down, face up
Prone
lying down, face down
Abdominopelvic Quadrants (4)
Right upper
Left upper
Right Lower
Left lower
Abdominopelvic Regions (9)
R Hypochondriac
Epigastric
L Hypochondriac
R Lumbar
Umbilical
L Lumbar
R Inguinal
Hypogastric
L Inguinal
Epigastric
liver
stomach
L Hypochondriac
spleen
Umbilical
gallbladder
large int.
small int.
Hypogastric
appendix
bladder
Anterior/ventral
front surface or belly side
Posterior/dorsal
back surface
Cephalic
head
Superior
above or highest
Inferior
below or lowest
Caudal
tail or coccyx
Medial
towards the center of the body
Lateral
along the side of
Proximal
towards the attached base
Distal
away from attached base
Superficial
towards the surface or closer to body surface
Deep
far from surface
Frontal/Coronal Plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior
Sagittal
divides the body into left and right
Midsagittal
directly down the middle
Parasagittal
offset from the middle
Transverse
horizontal plane divides body into superior and inferior portions
2 Functions of Body cavities
protects organs from shocks & impacts
permit changes in size & shape of internal organs
Visceral
lines walls of cavities
Parietal
covers surface of enclosed viscera
2 Major Subdivisions of body
Dorsal (cranial & vertebral)
Ventral (thoracic & abdominopelvic)
Integumentary System Organs
skin, hair, sweat glands, nails
Integumentary System Functions
protection against environmental hazards
regulate body temp
provides sensory info
Skeletal System Organs
bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, bone marrow
Skeletal System Functions
support & protection for other tissues
stores Ca & other nutrients
forms blood cells
Muscular System Organs
skeletal muscles, associated tendons
Muscular System Functions
provides movements
protection and support for other tissues
generates heat that maintains body temp
Nervous System Organs
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves sense organs
Nervous System Function
directs immediate response to stim
coordination or moderates activities of other organ systems
provides/interprets sensory info about external conditions
Endocrine System Organs
pituitary gland, pancreas, gonads endocrine tissues in other system, thyroid gland, adrenal glands
Endocrine System Functions
directs long-term changes in the activities of other systems
adjusts metabolic activity & energy use by body
controls structural & functional changes during development
Cardiovascular System Organs
heart, blood, BV
Cardiovascular System Functions
distributes blood cells, water, nutrients, waste product, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
distributes heat & assists control of body temp
Lymphatic System Organs
spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils
Lymphatic System Functions
defends against infection & disease
returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
Respiratory System Organs
nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli
Respiratory System Functions
deliver air to alveoli
provide oxygen to bloodstream
remove CO2 from bloodstream
aid in sound production
Digestive System Organs
teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Digestive System Functions
processes & digests food
absorbs & conserves water
absorbs nutrients
stores energy reserves
Urinary System Organs
kidney, uterus, urinary bladder, urethra
Urinary System Functions
excretes waste from blood
controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced
stores urine prior to elimination
regulates blood pH & ion concentration
Mechanisms of Regulation
Autoregulation & Extrinsic Regulation
Autoregulation
automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change
Extrinsic Regulation
nervous system (rapid & short)
Endocrine System (slower & persistent)
Negative Feedback
counteracting a change
Thermoregulation & Hypothalamus
Positive Feedback
an initial stim that produces a response that amplifies the original response
4 Types of Tissue
epithelial, connective, muscle, neural
What does Epithelial mean
over external or line the internal surfaces
Epithelial Characteristics
cossages
cellularity (tightly packed)
polarity (difference between apical & basal surfaces)
attached to connective tissue
avascular
can regenerate fast
Epithelial Functions
provide physical protection
permeability
sensation
specialized secretion
Epithelial Specializations
Intercellular Connections
attachment to basement membrane
maintenance & repair
Intercellular Connections
Tight Junctions (between plasma membrane)
Gap Junctions (tunnel that allows electrical coupling)
Desmosomes (anchoring sites for intermediate filaments)
3 Parts of regulatory mechanism
Sensor
Control Center
Effector
Simple Squamous Function
absorption, secretion, reduce friction, controls vessel permeability
Mesothelium
lines ventral body cavities
Endothelium
lines heart & BV
Simple Squamous Location
BV, kidney, tubules, inner lining of cornea, alveoli of lungs
Stratified Squamous Location
surface of skin, lining of mouth, esophagus anus
Stratified Squamous Function
provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, & chemical attack
Simple Cuboidal Location
glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, thyroid glands
Simple Cuboidal Function
secretion & absorption
Stratified Cuboidal (rare)
Location: lining of stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, collecting ducts of kidney
Function: protection, secretion, absorption
Pseudostratified
Location: lining of nasal cavity, trachea/bronchi
Function: protection, secretion, move mucus
Stratified columnar
Location: pharynx, conjunctive epiglottis, anus, mammary glands, salivary gland ducts
Function: protection
Merocrine Secretion
product released by exocytosis (vesicles)
Apocrine Secretion
apical portion of cytoplasm becomes packed with these vesicles => shed
Holocrine Secretion
destruction of gland cells
Types of Secretion
serous gland: watery enzyme secretion
mucous gland: mucus
mixed exocrine: both
Connective Tissue Characteristics
specialized cells that reproduce
bind structures together
Ground substance Fluid
never exposed to outside environment
Connective Tissue Functions
structural framework
transport fluids
protection of organs
support + connect tissues
store energy reserves
defend body
Connective Tissue Proper
many types of cells & EC fibers in syrupy ground substance
- connect & protect
Fluid Connective Tissue
cells suspended in watery matrix with proteins
- transport (Ex: blood & lymph)
Supporting Connective tissues
less diverse cell types that are densely packed
- cartilage & bone
Fibroblast (CTP)
secretes protein subunits (cellular cement)
Fibrocytes (CTP)
maintains the fibers in CTP
Adipocytes
fat
Mesenchymal cells (CTP)
stem cells
Macrophages (CTP)
phagocytic cells of immune system
Mast Cells (CTP)
stim inflammation after injury/infection
Lymphocytes (CTP)
specialized immune cells in lymphatic system
- develops into plasma cells => produce antibodies
Microphages (CTP)
phagocytic BC; responds to signals
- neutrophils & eosinophils
Fiber types
Collagen
- long & unbranched
- resist force in one direction
- tendons & ligaments
Reticular
- same structure diff arrangement as collagen
- strong, flexible, unbranched
- resist force in many directions
- sheaths around organs
Elastic
- branched & wavy
- return to length after stretching
- elastic ligaments of interconnecting vertebrae
Areolar
loosely organized
open framework
help elastic fibers retain their shape
extensive blood supply
viscous ground substance
Adipose Functions/Types
padding, shock absorb, insulates
White => most common
Brown => babies
Reticular
supporting framework
- spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow
Dense CT
fibers dominated by collagen
- dense regular
- dense irregular
- elastic
Dense regular (DCT)
tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis
dense irregular (DCT)
layered in skin, forms capsules around organs
elastic (DCT)
dominated by elastic fibers
Blood
cells in watery matrix (plasma)
RBC => transport O2/CO2
WBC => nucleated cells that defend the body
Platelets => membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm (clotting)
Lymph
forms interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels
- monitored by immune system
- recirculation of fluid = homeostasis essential
Supportive Connective Tissue
less diverse with densely packed fibers
- cartilage
- bone
Types of Cartilage
Hyaline
- stiff
- reduces friction
- synovial joints
Elastic
- supportive but bends easy
- external ear & epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
- tough & durable
- prevents bone to bone contact
- knee joint, pubic bones
Bone
- mostly Ca salts
- collagen fibers to resist shattering
Tissue Membranes
epithelium supported by CT; lines portions of the body
Types of Tissue Membranes
Mucous
- lines passageways w/ external connections
- digestive, respiratory, urinary
Serous
- lines cavities not open to outside
- reduce friction
- thin but strong
Cutaneous
- skin; surface of body
- thick, dry, waterproof
Synovial
- lines moving, articulating joint cavities
- produces synovial fluid
- protects ends of bones
- lacks true epithelium
Muscle tissue
contraction, produces all body movement
Skeletal Muscle tissue
- cross striates, long & thin
- voluntary
Cardiac Muscle tissue
- only in heart
- cross striations
- voluntary
- networks at intercalated discs
Smooth Muscle tissue
- walls of hollow organs
- BV, bladder, digestive tract
- non striated
- involuntary
Nervous tissue
conducts electrical impulses
senses int/ext environment
processes info & controls responses
2 Types of Nervous Tissue
Neurons & Neuroglia
Homeostasis Restoration
Inflammation & Regeneration
Inflammation (1st response)
mast cells release histamine, heparin & prostaglandins into surrounding fluids
BV dialtes for increases BF (redness + heat)
Permeability of capillary walls increase so plasma diffuses in (swelling)
cells break down & release enzymes that destry damaged cell + surrounding tissue
Pus = dead tissue, cell debris & fluid
enhanced circulation carries toxins away => inflammation goes down
Regeneration
starts when injury/infection cleaned up
fibroblasts move in & lay down collagenous framework (scar tissue)
Fibrosis
replacement of tissues with fibrous tissue
2 Parts of Integumentary System
Cutaneous membrane & Accessory structure
Layers of Keratinocytes
Stratum Corneum
- keratinized
- insensible perspiration (interstitial fluid lost by evaporation)
- sensible perspiration
Stratum Lucidum
- only in thick skin
- flat and no organelles
Stratum Granulosum
- produces keratin = death of ep. cells
Stratum Spinosum
- increases thickness of ep.
- spiny layer
Stratum Basale
- deepest layer of ep.
- merkel cells = response to touch
- melanocytes = pigment
Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
powerful peptide growth factor
produced by glands
EGF Functions
division of germ. cells
speeds up keratin production
stim ep. repair
stim glandular secretion
Dermis
located between epidermis & subcutaneous layer
anchors accessory structures
2 components of dermis
Papillary layer
- areolar tissue
- sensory neurons, capillaries
Deep Reticular layer
- DICT with collagen & elastic fibers
- large BV & glands
- strength of skin
Dermal strength & elasticity
Collagen Fibers
- strength/resilience
- limits flexibility = prevent damage
Elastic Fibers
- stretching & recoil
- flexibility
Hypodermis
Subcutaneous Layer
- below integument
- made of elastic & adipose
- connected to reticular by CT
Subcutaneous Fat
- lots in babies for insulation
- distribution depends on hormones
- live laugh love liposuction
Melanin
Pheomelanin (orange-yllow)
- accumulates in epidermal cells & fatty tissues
Eumelanin (brown-yellow)
- stored in melanosomes & eventually transferred to keratinocytes
Localized Differences
freckles = pigmented areas on pale skin
lentigos = darker more abnormal melanocytes
sentinel lentigos = pigmented areas that happen on sun exposed skin (old white people)
Blood Circulation in skin tone
BV dilated from heart = reddens
BF decreases = pale
Illness and skin color
Jaundice = buildup of bile by liver
Pituitary tumor = excess melanocyte stim hormone (dark skin)
Addison’s disease = excess production of ACTH
Vitiligo = loss of melanocytes
Hair
located deep in dermis
wrapped in DCT
base is surrounded by sensory nerves
has stem cells
Places humans don’t have hair
palms, soles, lips, portions of external genetilia
Function of hair
protects & insulates
guards openings against particles & insects
Hair growth cycle
grows every 2-5 years/0.33mm per day
cell roots absorb nutrients/toxins (used for diagnosis)
End of growth cycle
follicle becomes inactive - club hair
connections between hair matrix & club hair root break down (shed)
Types of hair
lanugo = hair around body
vellus/terminal = heavy pigmented hair
Hair color
produced by melanin in hair papilla
determined by genes
Sebaceous Oil gland
simple, branched alveolar that discharges sebum into hair follicles
holocrine
sebum (oily secretion) lubes hair & protects it by stopping growth of hair
Sebaceous Follicles
large sebaceous glands not associated with hair follicles
discharge sebum direction onto epidermis
Apocrine Sweat Gland
armpit, nipples, groin
secrete products into ducts with empty hair follicles
makes sticky, milky secretions & puberty
- odorless unless organic molec decomposed by bacteria on skin
Eccrine Sweat Gland
everywhere except palms & soles
coiled, tubular glands that discharge directly onto skin surface
sensible (visible) perspiration
Functions of Eccrine sweat gland
generally to reduce body temp
- excretes water & electrolytes
- flush microorganism & harmful chemicals
Mammary glands
- anatomically related to apocrine
- development & secretion under hormonal control
Ceruminous gland
- modified sweat gland in ext ear
- make cerumen (earwax)
- protects eardrum
Control of Glands
sebaceous & apocrine are controlled by (ANS)
Merocrine are controlled independently
Nails
- dead cells packed with keratin
- metabolic disorder can change nail structure
- nail body is visible portion
Nail Diagnostic
Yellow = thyroid, jaundice
pitted = psoriasis
concave = iron deficiency
clubbing = hypoxemic
Integument repair
- bleeding happens
- triggers inflammatory response
- clotting => germ cells migrate => macrophages clean the area => fibroblasts & endothelial cells make granulation tissue => eventually collagen fibers & ground substance is made
Burns
1st = only surface
- erythema (redness) = inflammation
2nd = entire ep. some dermis
- blistering but accessory structures fine
3rd = epidermis, dermis & some hypo damaged
- less painful bc nerves destroyed
4th = muscle & bones
Aging
of dendritic cells decrease 50% by 21
low vit d3 => low salt absorption => weakness
low melanocyte activity = sensitive to sun
low gland activity = dry skin
low blood supply = always cold
low sex hormone = fading hair
Components of Skeletal System
bones, cartilage, ligaments, CT
NOT TENDONS
Functions of Skeletal System
support, storage of minerals (calcium & lipids), BC production, protection, leverage
Sutural Bone
small irregular between flat bone in skull
Irregular Bone
complex shape, spine & coxal
Short Bone
small & thick; wrist
(as wide as they are long)
Flat Bone
thin with parallel surfaces; skull, sternum, ribs & scapulae
Long Bone
long & thin; arms, legs, hands, feet
(longer than wide)
Sesamoid Bone
small & flat; in tendons where tendons pass over joint
knees, hands, feet
Process (bone marking)
projection or bump
Ramus (bone marking)
part of a bone that forms an angle with the rest
Sinus (bone marking)
chamber within a bone, filled with air
Foramen (bone marking)
rounded passageway for BV or nerves
Fissure (bone marking)
deep, furrow, cleft, or slit
Meatus (bone marking)
passage or channel as opening of a canal
Canal (bone marking)
duct of channel
Sulcus (bone marking)
narrow groove
Fosse (bone marking)
shallow depression
Trochanter (bone marking)
large,rough projection
Crest (bone marking)
prominent ridge
Spine (bone marking)
pointed process
Line (bone marking)
low ridge
Tubercle (bone marking)
small, rounded projection
Tuberosity (bone marking)
rough projection
Head (bone marking)
expended articular end of epiphysis
Neck (bone marking)
narrow connection between the epiphysis & diaphysis
Facet (bone marking)
small rounded articular process
Trochlea (bone marking)
smooth grooved articular process shaped like a pulley
Structure of Bone
Diaphysis (shaft)
- heave compact or dense bone
- medullary (marrow cavity)
Epiphysis (wide part at each end)
- mostly spongy (cancellous) bone
- covered in compact (cortex) bone
Structure of flat bone
sandwich of spongy bone between 2 layers of compact bone
Bone Matrix Characteristics
very dense bc of Ca salt & protein fibers
Canaliculi = forms pathway for BV & exchanges nutrients & waste
Periosteum = covers outer surface of bone
Matrix Compositions
2/3 = calcium phosphate or hydroxyapatite
1/3 = collagen fiber
Osteocytes
mature bone cell that maintains bone matrix
live in lacunae between layers of matrix
connect by cytoplasmic extensions through canaliculi (gap junctions)
2 Functions of Osteocytes
maintain protein & mineral content of matrix
help repair damaged bone
Osteoblasts
immature cell that secretes matrix compounds in osteogenesis
ossification = matrix made by osteoblasts by not calcified to be bone
osteoblasts become osteocytes
Osteoprogenitor cells
osteogenic cells divide to make osteoblasts
found in endosteum = inner layer of periosteum
helps in fracture repair
Osteoclasts
large multinucleate cells = originate from monocytes
secretes acids & protein digesting enzymes
helps for organ growth
stimulated by PTH
inhibited by calcitonin & osteoprotegerin
Homeostasis of Bone tissue
bone building by osteoblasts & bone recycling by osteoclasts
breakdown > building = weak
resorption > deposition = osteoperosis
Osteon is basic unit of bone structure
osteocytes arranged in concentric lamellae around central canal w/ BV
perforating canal are perpendicular to central canal & car
Circumferential lamellae
lamellae wrapped around the long bone that binds osteons together
Lacunae
hollows at junctions of lamellae
contains osteocyte
Canaliculi
radiate through lamellae
connect lamellae with each other & central canal
Structure of Spongy bone
no osteons
matrix has open fibers (trabeculae)
no BV
nutrients diffuse along canaliculi
Red Bone marrow
fills space between trabeculae in some bones
BV = delivers nutrients to osteocytes
forms RBC
Yellow Bone marrow
found in some spongy bone
adipose = E reserve
Femur transfers weight from hip to knee joint
tension on lateral side of shaft
compression on medial side
center of bone is fine
Periosteum
covers all bones except parts enclosed in joint capsules
made of fibrous layer & inner cell layer containing osteoblasts & osteoclasts
secured to underlying bone with perforating fibers = connecting collagen fibers
Functions of Periosteum
isolates bone from surrounding tissue
provides way for circulatory & nervous supply
participates in bone growth & repair
Endosteum
lines medullary cavity, central canal
covers trabeculae of spongy bone
contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, & osteoprogenitor cells
active in bone growth & repair
Ossification
process of replacing other tissues with bone
2 Types of Ossification
Endochondral & Intramembranous
Endochondral Ossification (long bones)
hyaline cartilage on epiphysis is replaced by bone
shaft = osteoblasts invade & replace w/ bone
epiphyseal = new cartilage is produce at same rate
Intramembranous Ossification (flat bones)
bone develops directly from mesenchyme or fibrous CT
Bone growth at Puberty
osteoblasts make bone faster than chondrocytes make cartilage
epiphyseal cartilage gets narrow and eventually disappears
shows up as ep. line in X ray
ep. plate = kids/teenagers
ep. line = adults
Appositional growth
compact bone thicens & strengthens long bone with layers of circumferential lamellae
Cicrum lamellae wraps around long bone to bind osteons together
Blood supply of mature bones
nutrient artery & vein = single pair of large BV that enters diaphysis through nutrient foramen
Metaphyseal vessels = supply ep. cartilage where bone growth occurs
Periosteal vessels = supply blood to superficial osteons at secondary ossification centers
Network of Lymph Vessels
collect lymph from branches that enter the body
reaches each osteon through perforating canals
Sensory nerves
endosteum, medullary cavity, epiphyses
Bone remodeling
osteocytes = remove & replace Ca salts
Osteoblasts = make new osteons
Osteoclasts = remove old osteons
Effects of excersize
mineral recycling = bone adapts to stress
heavily stressed bones = thick & strong
Nutritional & Hormonal Factors for Bone Growth
diet of calcium & phosphate salts
small amounts of MgF, Fe, Manganese
Vitamin C
collagen synthesis
Vitamin A
stimulates osteoblast activity
Vitamin D3 & calcitrol
synthesize bone proteins
Growth Hormone & thyroxine
stimulates bone growth
Calcitonin & PTH
regulate salt levels in bone & blood
Calcitrol
made in kidneys (PTH)
needed for salt absorption
synthesis needs Vitamin D3
PTH in Ca regulatoin
made in PT in neck
increases Ca in blood
- increasing osteoclast activity
- increasing Ca ions absorbed & production of calcitriol in kidney
- decreases Ca excretion in kidney
Calcitonin in Ca regulation
secreted in thyroid gland
decreases Ca ion in blood
- decreases osteoclast activity
decreases absorption of Ca
- increases Ca excretion in kidneys
Fracture
Bleeding = clot formation, est. fibrous meshwork, death of bone cells
endo & peri cells divide & move to site to stabilize
Osteoblasts replace central cartilage with spongy bone
Osteoblasts & osteocytes remodel fracture for up to a year
Osteopenia
reduced bone mass
Osteoperosis
severe bone loss
Hormones in Bone
estrogen & androgens help maintain
gets worse after menopause
Ca deficiency in Bone
rickets = bone softening & deformity
osteomalacia = adult form of rickets (lack of Vitamin D)
Collagen Defect in Bone
osteogenesis imperfecta = brittle bone
not enough collagen
Osteogenesis
bone too porous
Osteolysis
reduced bone mass
Osteopenia
bone too soft
What happens in Osteoporosis
osteoclasts dissolve bone
What happens in Osteomalacia
osteoblasts make new bone
