Test 4 Flashcards
The only design that allows for conclusion of cause and effect
experimental designs
The gold standard for EBP
experimental design
Similar to experimental design, assignment to groups is not random. Evidence of cause and effect is not as strong as a result
quasi-experimental design
Studies of intact groups:
case/control
ex post facto
causal-comparative
measurement of a group over time
time series designs
independent variable manipulated at some point in time, group serves as its own control
time series designs
enables researcher to determine effectiveness of intervention & quantify timing of effects
time series designs
Enables inference of results from a carefully selected sample to an overall population
inferential analysis
quantifies the potential effects of error on the results
inferential analysis
Statistical tests in quantitative analysis are selected:
a priori
Type of analysis is driven by:
goals of the analysis
assumptions of the data
number of variables in the analysis
Based on the assumption that the data fall into a specific distribution, usually the normal distribution
parametric
Specific to data that is not normally distributed
non-parametric
a single variable (descriptive and summary statistics, single dependent variable or one group)
univariate
two variables (relationship between two variables such as correlation, single variable predicts an outcome)
bivariate
Simultaneous analysis of multiple variables (greater than two) (multiple predictors on a single outcome or multiple factors on multiple outcomes, multiple groups and several effects)
multivariate
indicates that the probability the results are due to chance is very low
very low p-value
indicates that the test has statistical significance
low p-value
gives inferential analysis its strength
comparison of differences to standard error
Calculation of the probability of error
determines if the intervention has an effect that is real
statistical significance
quantify if the difference is important
clinical significance
Reflects the extent to which an intervention can make a real difference in patients’ lives
clinical significance
statistics that inform the importance of findings
confidence intervals
minimum important difference
effect size
this sample statistic equals the population parameter
estimation
the range of numbers we believe will include the population parameter
interval estimate
allows for determination of the amount of uncertainty in the estimate
statistical estimation
Two numerical values defining an interval that we believe, with an identified level of confidence, actually includes the estimated population parameter
confidence interval
Show the range of possible differences in effect by intervention
Help the nurse determine whether the observed differences suggest true benefits, or just minor change
Reported in the same relative scale as the outcome itself
confidence interval
Common ways to find the _____ include:
Compare the change in the outcome to some other measure of chance
Compare the change to a sampling distribution to determine its probability
Consult an expert panel
Minimum important difference
is the size of the differences between experimental and control groups
effect size
If a difference is detected, may be due to:
Experimental treatment caused the effect
Sampling error caused the effect (chance)
We ____ prove the experiment caused the difference
cannot
We ____ estimate the probability it was caused by error
can
determines whether the differences in mean values between two groups are statistically significant or clinically important:
z or t test
appropriate for large samples or testing a population
z test
for small samples
t test (30 or less)
____ are best for identifying patient preferences, aggregating clinician experiences, and for identifying trends in the recommendations of clinical experts.
qualitative studies
The goal of qualitative inquiry
to identify the meaning of a phenomenon, event, or experience for an individual.
Used for exploratory questions to establish basic knowledge
descriptive qualitative study
Used to extract meaning
Emphasizes process and context in understanding an experience
Interpretive qualitative study
qualitative designs have a ____ design
emergent
Data gathered directly from informants, through observation, or from documents
Questions that reflect exploration of perceptions
Constant comparison analysis
Qualitative designs
Research that is applied to discover the meaning and interpretations of events, phenomena, or experiences by studying cases intensively in natural settings and by subjecting data to analytic interpretation.
constructivist research
informants chosen who can best inform the question
purposeful sampling strategy
Emergent analytic process that evolves
- Coding units of meaning into themes
constant comparison
detailed descriptions
field notes
Qualitative data is based on ______ rather than ___ and ____
trustworthiness
reliability
validity
types of triangulation
Data source triangulation
Investigator triangulation
Theory triangulation
Method triangulation
goals of qualitative analysis
Reduce the data to meaningful units that can be described, interpreted, reported
To organize and produce structure to the data collected
To draw out the meaning from the information and develop themes
qualitative analysis challenges
No single standard or guideline for the analytic process
Enormous quantity of data is generated that must be reviewed and summarized
Balancing rich description with focus and length limitations
A method of analysis that involves the review of data as they are gathered and comparison of new data to what has been interpreted, in order to support reject earlier conclusions.
constant comparison
Common Qualitative Analytic Styles
template analysis
editing analysis
immersion/crystallization
The Phases of Qualitative Analysis
Comprehending
Synthesizing
Theorizing
Recontextualizing
Reflection on the data
Explication of themes
Discernment of patterns that form the “essence of the experience”
Phenomenology
Generate categories of meaning
Position each category in a theoretical model demonstrating relationships
Create a story from the interconnectedness of the categories
Add informants as the theory unfolds to illuminate and/or refute specific conclusions
Grounded Theory
Triangulation of multiple sources of information
Use of thick description to draw conclusions
Ethnography
Criteria for Trustworthiness
Credibility
Dependability
Confirmability
Transferability
Quantitative analysis can be used for:
determine effects of an intervention
Measure the relationships between variables
Detect changes over time
PICO stands for:
Population
Intervention
Comparison
Outcome
Studies of cause and effect similar to experimental designs but using convenience samples or existing groups to test interventions.
quasi-experimental designs
An intact group design that involves categorization of subjects into groups. An outcome of interest is measured and differences are attributed to the differences in classification of subects.
Causal-comparative
The strongest type of quasi-experimental design in which subject responses in two or more groups are measured before and after an intervention
nonequivalent comparison group before/after design
An intact-group design that relies on observation of the relationships between naturally occurring differences in the intervention and outcome.
Ex post facto research
A type of quasi-experimental design in which data are collected after the intervention is introduced. Lack of baseline data may introduce extraneous variables in the results.
nonequivalent comparison group posttest only
An intact-group design that involves observation of subjects who exhibit a characteristic matched with subjects who do not. Differences between the subjects allow study of relationships between risk and disease without subjecting healthy individuals to illness
case-control study
Highly strutured studies of cause and effect applied to determine effectiveness of an intervention
experimental design
A type of quasi-experimental design in which only one group receives the intervention; an outcome is measured repeatedly over time
time-series designs
A subgroup of the sample of a quasi-experimental design from which the intervention is withheld. Subjects are similar to and compared with the experimental group, but are not randomly assigned.
comparison group
A error that is drectly affected by variability and indirectly affected by sample size
standard error
Statistical tests that make no assumptions about the distribution of the data
nonparametric tests
A statistic used to represent a population parameter
point estimate
The categories that make up factors in an ANOVA
levels
statistical tests that are able to yield reliable results even if their underlying assumptions are violated
robust tests
Independent variables in an ANOVA that are measured as categories
factors
Variable that is not a part of the central study, but do exert an effect on the outcome
extraneous variables
The primary difference between quasi-experimental and experimental designs is:
the lack of random assignment to tx groups
time-series designs are sometimes considered ____
quasi-experimental
___ ____ answers the question “What is going on?”
descriptive analysis
___ _____ answers the question “Are you sure?”
inferential analysis
an analysis of differences that occur between samples and populations, between groups, or over time because something changed.
inferential analysis
the p-value represents:
the probability that the results were due to standard error
low p-value =
statistical significance
clinical significance is determined if the ___ is within the ___
MID; confidence intervale
ANOVA stands for:
analysis of variance
used in a preliminary way to establish basic knowledge about a groups’ or individual’s response to health and illness
descriptive qualitative research
involves extracting meaning from data in ways that require inductive thought on the part of the researcher
interpretive qualitative research
emphasizes understanding the meaning that individuals ascribe to their actions and to the reactions of others
interpretive qualitative research
another word for qualitative research
constructivist research
grounded in the assumption that individuals construct reality in the form of meaning and interpretation
constructivist research
useful for determining the effectiveness of an intervention
quantitative research
useful for describing the acceptability of an intervention
qualitative research
based on a set of preestablished set of selection criteria and a systematic appraisal of study quality
qualitative meta-synthesis
encompasses both qualitative and quantitative studies, resulting in a practice guideline that incorporates elements of both types of research
integrative review
researchers specifically state questions; not objectives, aims, or hypotheses
qualitative research
research quality designs are sometimes called ___ when they refer to qualitative approaches
traditions
Occurs when the researcher identifies criteria for the type of informant most likely to illuminate the research question, actively seeks out these individuals, and personally invites their participation.
purposeful selection
involves sampling participants who meet certain inclusion criteria and then stratifying them according to age, gender, ethcicity, and other criteria
stratified purposeful sampling
The results of the study represent the realities of the participants as musch as possible
credibility
the researcher attempts to enhance objectivity by reducing bias in methods and procedures
confirmability
repetition of the study with similar subjects in similar circumstances results in consistent findings
dependability
results can be transferred to situations with similar subjects and settings
transferability
A sensitiviity to the ways in which the researcher and the research process have shaped the data; based on introspection and acknowledgment of bias
reflexivity
investment of sufficient time in the data collection process so that the research gains an in-depth understanding of the culture, language, or views of the group under study
prolonged engagement
enhancing credibility by cross-cheking information and conclusions, using multiple data sources, using multiple research methods or researchers to study the phenomenon, or using multiple theories and perspectives to interpret the data
triangulation
a type of triangulation in which multiple data sources are used in a study
data source triangulation
a type of triangulation in which more than one person is used to collect, analyze, or interpret a set of data
investigator triangulation
involves gaining and using multiple perspectives from other researchers or published literature
theory triangulation
entails the use of multiple data collection methods
method triangulation
Asking paritcipants to review and comment on the accuracy of transcripts, interpretations, or conclusions.
member checking
A thorough, conscientious reflection on and documentation of the decisions that were made, the procedures that were designed, and the questions that were addressed during analysis
audit trail
qualitative research has a __ focus
subjective
intense study of a single subject or small group of subjects
case research method
interpretation of the meaning in verbal responses or in documents
content analysis
Designs that rely on data collected via interviews or document analysis and that use interpretive coding to arrive at themes and patterns.
content analysis
useful for understanding the way in which patients react and respond to both everyday experiences and unique events
phenomenology
The goal is to develop rich, detailed, insightful descriptions of the way individuals react to the experiences in their lives.
phenomenology
A process that occurs when an observer has extended contact with the subjects of a study. The subjects revert to natural behaviors and come to disregard that observer’s presence
habituation
Intent is to discover a pattern of reactions, interactions, and relationships among people and their concerns
grounded theory
provides evidence about the ways people react and interact with one another and with their own health and illness.
grounded theory
The degree to which descriptive information such as events, subjects, setting, time, and places are accurately reported.
descriptive validity
Thedegree to which participants’ viewpoitns, thoughts, intentions,a nd experiences are accurately understood and reported by the qualitative researcher
interpretive validity
The degree to which a theory or theoretical explanation informing or developed from a research study fits the data and, therefore, is credible and defensible
theoretical validity
The degree to which an evaluative framework or critique is applied to the object of study
evaluative validity
involves the selection of a second sample of informants with less restrictive criteria to encourage diverse viewpoints to emerge
theoretical sampling
geared toward interpretation of text to find meaningful segments.
editing analysis
reduced to the fewest components; the simplest model that will demonstrate a concept
parsimonious
A qualitative data analysis and cognitive process undertaken by the researcher to search for meaning that may lead to a theory
recontextualizing
Occurs when the researcher attempts to make sense of the data that have been collected an get a sense of the overall tone.
comprehending
Leads the researcher to sift through the data using inductive reasoning to put the pieces of the puzzle together
synthesizing
Brings the researcher to the point of what he or she believes has truly emerged from the data
theorizing
A system of organizing data into preset categories to allow for examination and further analysis
schematic
labels, descriptions, or definitions assigned to data to allow them to be categorized and analyzed in qualitative research.
codes
implicit, recurring, and unifying ideas derived from the raw data in qualitative research
themes
An external check on credibility of results in which objective peers with expertise in the qualitative method of analysis review and explore various aspects o the data
peer debriefing
A measure of interrate or intercoder reliability between two raters or coders. The test yields the percentage of agreement and the probabilty of error.
Cohen’s kappa
A review of data and relevant documents, procedures, and results by an external reviewer
inquiry audit
A detailed description of the researcher’s decision rules for data categorization and inferences made in the analysis
decision trail
