Test 4-2 Flashcards

Question

at fertilization

Answer 1

- Meiosis II will be completed to give rise to a mature ovum (1n - 1d) only if the 2*oocyte is fertilized by a sperm. - sperm provides a molecular signal for the resumption and completion of meiosis II. - During Meiosis II, each of the 23 (double chromatid) chromosomes (sister chromatids) split, and each resultant cell (gamete) inherits 23 (single chromatid) chromosomes = Mature ovum and polary body#2 - polar body#1 also split into 2 more polar bodies = degenerate

Answer 2

Begins at puberty and continues throughout the reproductive years (puberty - menopause).

Answer 3

an oocyte surrounded by a layer or layers of epithelial follicular or granulosa cells.

Answer 4

- primordial follicles | - growing follicles= primary follicle (unilamilar and multilaminar) and secondary (antral) follicles

Answer 5

Mature (Graafian) follicles

Answer 6

1. primary oocyte (in prophase I) 2. simple squamous follicle cells with desmosomes 3. basal lamina 4. formed prenatally 5. is dormant, most immature follicle in ovary 6. primordial follicles are present in ovary at birth and until menopause

Answer 7

the primary follicle

Answer 8

- oocyte matures here - (is UNILAMINAR) a. primary oocyte (in prophase I) produces activin which stimulates stratification of the follicle cells b. zona pellucida, is an acellular, gel-like (viscous) membrane begins to form. It consists of GAG's and glycoproteins (is PAS+), that are secreted by the oocyte c. simple cuboidal follicle cells d. basal lamina

Answer 9

- produced by primary oocyte in prophase I | - stimulates stratification of the follicle cells

Answer 10

- multilaminar a. primary oocyte (in prophase I) b. zona pellucida c. mitosis, formation of stratified cuboidal granulosa cells (membrana granulosa), is avascular. Note that “follicular” cells are called “granulosa” cells from this stage of follicular dev’t on. d. gap junctions between granulosa cells e. granulosa cells have filopodia, oocyte has microvilli f. filopodia and microvilli perforate the zona pellucida, and they contact one another by gap junctions g. basal lamina h. theca folliculi – encapsulates follicle i. theca interna – begins to form a) cellular, steroid-secreting cells with SER, mitochondria and lipid droplets b) cells have LH receptors. LH stimulates cells to produce androgens (androstenedione) which is converted into estradiol by granulosa cells c) theca interna is richly vascularized due to its endocrine functions

Answer 11

a. primary oocyte (in prophase I) b. zona pellucida c. stratified granulosa cells secrete fluid (liquor folliculi = plasma transudates, GAG's, protein, proteoglycans, androgens, PG and estrogens) d. multiple fluid-filled antral cavities form e. basal lamina f. theca interna g. theca externa – fibrous (collagenous) connective tissue encapsulates follicle. Smooth muscle cells present

Answer 12

1. contains a primary oocyte (in prophase I) which progresses to secondary oocyte (in metaphase II) just prior to ovulation 2. zona pellucida 3. corona radiata consists of a single layer of granulosa cells that immediately surround (crown) the oocyte. This layer of granulosa cells pulls away from the oocyte while their filopodia are still in the zona pellucida, creating a "radiating crown" 4. membrana granulosa, cumulus oophorus and corona radiata all consist of granulosa cells. Cumulus oophorus is a mound of granulosa cells containing the oocyte FSH stimulates granulosa cells to convert androgens to estrogens Estrogens stimulate the proliferation of granulosa cells, causing enlargement of the follicle 5. liquor folliculi 6. the small antral cavities fuse to form a single fluid-filled cavity, the antrum 7. theca interna a. LH stimulates cells of theca interna to release androgens which in turn are converted to estrogens 8. theca externa

Answer 13

the release of a 20 oocyte from a mature (Graafian) follicle

Answer 14

1) FSH and LH released by basophils (gonadotropes) from ant pit around day 14 = NEED FOR OVULATION 2) mature follicle is close to and protrudes like a blister from the ovarian surface before ovulation 3) Meiosis I resumes in response to LH surge 4) Primary oocyte (suspended in Prophase since before birth) completes meiosis I (Meta I, Ana I, and telo I) to give rise to a secondary oocyte 5) Meiosis II begins immediately and the secondary oocyte progresses to and remains suspended at metaphase II 6) granulosa cells surrunding oocyte deach from interior of follicle 7) oocyte surrounded by zona pellucida and granulosa cells (corona radiata) float in liquor folliculi 8) follicular stigma - clear pale spot forms on the ovary over the follicle as blood flow to this area ceses 9) proteases break down cortical stromal tissue covering follicle- forms path for oocyte to leave ovary 10) granulosa wall ruptures releasing the oocyte and liquor folliculi 11) secondary oocyte in metaphase II, covered by zona pellucida and granulosa cells is released (OVULATION) into the hovering open end of the fallopian tube-> Enters fallopian tube = viable for 24 hours 12) ovulation pain = some females experience 13) following ovulation= granulosa cells thecal cells of the co llapsed mature follicle left behind, remaining embedded within the ovarian cortex are transformed into a temp ndocrine gland = corpus luteum (CL) 14a) NOT FERTILIZED=> granulosa and thecal cells left in the ovarian cortex are referred to as the CL of menstruation. Produces estrogen and PG for 14 days to maintain the endometrium but after that it degernerate = corpus albicans--> estrogen and PG levels drops and endometrium sheds 14b) FERTILIZED=> blastocyte implants. Granulosa and thecal cells in ovarian cortex become CL of pregnancy. - CL of prego persists past 2nd half of menstrual cycle bc it is maintained by the hCG released by the syncytiotrophoblast of the chorion (placenta) CL of prego produces estrogen and PG to maintian endometrium and pregnancy - granulosa cells differentiate into the granulosa lutein cells===> produce extrogens and PG===> stimulate the maturation and glandular activity of the endometrium preparing the uterine lining for possible implanttion - theca interna cells dif into the theca lutein cells - corpus albicans - dense CT scar formed after the corpus luteum regresses following menstruation of pregnancy

Answer 15

presence of hCG in the urine

Answer 16

polycystic ovarian disease AND pt has oligomeorrhea (scanty menstruation)

Answer 17

- mutl cysts form on ovaries = become enlarged - due to abn thickened tunica albuginea (TA) covering the ovaries == potential genetic basis - the thcikened TA = fluid filled cysts bc secondary follicles that try to rupture CANT = infertility - need to restore estrogen-progesterone balance to fix for some people

Answer 18

ZP-1, ZP-2 and ZP-3 glycoproteins.

Answer 19

the spermatozoa-binding receptor and induces the acrosome reaction.

Answer 20

secondary spermatozoa-binding protein

Answer 21

- first layer to get through= corona radiata of granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte - THEN they encounter the ZP - binding to ZP3 induces acrosome reaction (enzymes released -hyaluronidases= sperm can facilitate perforation of ZP) THESE ENZYMES ARE NOT ENOUGH THOUGH -SON OF A... - hyperactivation (w/ influx of Ca ions into sperm tail) of sperm near secondary oocyte = sperms tail is on crack(hyperactive) and it can then get through with the hyaluronidases

Answer 22

1. Infundibulum - trumpet-shaped, displays fimbriae, free end opens into the peritoneal cavity. Fimbriae facilitate the capture of the oocyte at ovulation so that it can pass into the lumen of the fallopian tube 2. Ampulla - dilated portion, 2/3 of tubes' length; longest and widest part - normal site of fertilization 3. Isthmus - connects tube to uterus, is constricted 4. Uterine (intramural) part - extends into uterine wall

Answer 23

1. MUCOSA - is thrown into longitudinal folds which are most numerous in the ampulla. Folds increase its surface area a. Epithelium - simple columnar i. ciliated cells – have a brush-like surface. Wave of cilia sweep oocyte in direction of the uterus. The cilia of these cells are not believed to have any beneficial effect on sperm motility and velocity ii. nonciliated peg cells - produce nutrient-rich, protective secretions for oocyte, sperm, or zygote b. Lamina propria - loose connective tissue 2. MUSCULARIS- smooth muscle - thick layer of circular (spiral) fibers (inner) - thin layer of longitudinal fibers (outer) - produces rhythmic peristaltic waves (alternating contraction and relaxation) that facilitate the movement of the oocyte from the infundibulum to the ampulla - Peristaltic waves pass toward the uterus 3. SEROSA- mesosalpinx which invests the uterine tube - visceral peritoneum (mesothelium and thin layer of LCT )

Answer 24

The uterus is the site of implantation of the blastocyst. It protects and nurtures the developing embryo and fetus during its 9-month gestation

Answer 25

1) endometrium 2) myometrium 3) perimetrium

Answer 26

a. epithelium - simple columnar i. ciliated cells ii. nonciliated secretory cells - secrete glycoproteins. b. lamina propria (endometrial stroma) - simple branched tubular glands (uterine glands), fibroblasts, dense irregular collagenous connective tissue i. stratum functionale (functional layer) - sloughed off at menstruation. Note that in a pregnant woman, the functional layer is referred to as the DECIDUA (which is a special name for the well-developed gravid endometrium). It is this layer that separates (peels off) from the remainder of the uterus after childbirth. So it’s the same layer that sheds during menstruation and after childbirth (easy to remember this way…) ii. stratum basale (basal layer) - remains to repave the functional layer (epithelium, glands and CT) iii. blood vessels: the uterine artery gives rise to arcuate arteries a) 6 - 10 arcuate arteries -in middle layer of myometrium-circumferentially oriented i) radial arteries: spiral arteries - supply functional layer; straight arteries - supply basal layer

Answer 27

- smooth muscle a. inner longitudinal layer b. middle circular layers, with larger blood vessels c. outer longitudinal layer d. during pregnancy the smooth muscle cells of the myometrium undergo hypertrophy (an increase in size of existing smooth muscle cells) and hyperplasty (an increase in the number of smooth muscle cells, via mitotic cell division)

Answer 28

- outer layer (consists of a or b below) a. serosa: mesothelium and loose connective tissue b. adventitia: connective tissue which attaches to surrounding structures

Answer 29

- lower cylindrical part 1. lining - simple columnar epithelium, mucous-secreting 2. 85% tough fibrous DCT, elastic fibers, some smooth muscle fibers (less than uterus) 3. vaginal part (ectocervix) - stratified squamous nonkeratinizing epitheliu 4. mucosa - cervical glands = branched, mucous

Answer 30

result from secretions obstructing the ducts of the cervical glands -in MUCOSA OF CERVIX

Answer 31

- ovarian hormones - amount and consistency determined by stage of menstual cycle - helps with transport of sperm - secretion is less viscous = helps with sperm travel

Answer 32

1) menstrual phase (1 - 4 days). 2) proliferative (follicular, estrogenic) phase (4 - 15 days). 3) secretory (luteal, progestational) phase (15 - 28 days)

Answer 33

1. if the ovulated oocyte is not fertilized, and implantation does not occur, the CL stops functioning in about 14 days 2. PG and estrogen levels decline 3. smooth muscle in wall of spiral arteries contracts 4. blood flow to functional layer decreases (due to spasmodic contraction) 5. functional layer becomes ischemic 6. blood flow to the endometrial lining ceases 7. necrosis of functional layer 8. blood vessels break off, and functional layer of endometrium sloughs off 9. bleeding occurs (menstrual flow). Blood and functional layer are released.

Answer 34

1. uterine mucosa = lamina propria with basal portions of the glands 2. estrogen stimulates proliferation of epithelium, glands, vessels 3. glands consist of straight tubules lined with simple columnar epithelium 4. spiral arteries grow into the repaved (regenerating) endometrial stroma

Answer 35

1. starts after ovulation 2. PG stimulates glands (that were formed earlier in response to estrogen) to synthesize and release glycoproteins. The glycoproteins may nourish the implanted blastocyst (no placenta yet) 3. glands become coiled 4. spiral arteries grow into functional layer of endometrium

Answer 36

- the most common, benign neoplasms of smooth muscle origin, in women. - spherical - usually only problem if get large or numerous and cause bleeding - abn bleeding

Answer 37

A. MUCOSA 1. epithelium- stratified squamous nonkeratinizing epithelium, glycogen (met by bacteria = acidic protective environment) 2. lamina propria - abundant elastic fibers, loose fibroelastic connective tissue, lymphocytes, neutrophils. NO GLANDS in its wall B. MUSCULAR - thin inner layer, circular smooth muscle fibers. - thicker outer layer, longitudinal fibers, continuous with corresponding uterine layer C. ADVENTITIA- DCT, thick elastic fibers, venous plexus, nerve bundles

Answer 38

- Compound tubuloalveolar glands - not-pregnant=branching duct system and dense fibrous interlobular tissue - pregnant=

Answer 39

PROPHSE I in 2n - 4d

Answer 40

- just before ovulation. | - it will continue through meiosis II up to Metaphase II

Answer 41

- hCG from syncytiotrophoblast | - gonadotropins from ant lobe of pit

Answer 42

1. encloses each testis 2. Consists of dense irregular collagenous CT 3. Mediastinum Testis a. Is the thickened portion of the tunica albuginea, where the epididymis attaches b. Is the site where blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels and genital ducts enter or leave the testis c. Gives rise to incomplete CT septa that radiate into the testis i. Septa subdivide testis into ~ 250 lobules, the lobuli testis

Answer 43

1. Forms a layer of loose CT deep to the tunica albuginea | 2. Has a rich vascular supply and is the vascular capsule" around the testis

Answer 44

a. 1 - 4 coiled seminiferous tubules b. interstitial cells (of Leydig) c. loose CT stroma, a highly vascular tissue arising from the tunica vasculosa that serves as a filler tissue, surrounding the seminiferous tubules and the interstitial cells

Answer 45

1. Testicular artery 2. Pampiniform plexus of veins 3. The artery, veins, and ductus deferens form the spermatic cord which traverses the inguinal canal

Answer 46

- Thin CT layer - Type I collagen - 3 - 5 layers of myoid cells (contractile) rhythmic contractions produce peristaltic waves to move the spermatozoa through the seminiferous tubules

Answer 47

- (Supporting or Sustentacular Cells) – “nurses” - tall, columnar, non-repolicating cells after puberty - apical and lateral cell membrane =highly folded - clear, ovoid or triangular nucleus, and a prominent nucleolus - sertoli cell to sertoli cell junctional complex= tight zonula occludens--> bind lateral membranes of adjacent sertoli cells==> compartmentalization of seminiferous epithelium into 1)basal epithelial compartment 2) luminal compartment - occludens= blood-testes barrier==> physical suport, and physiological support for spermatogenetic cells. (chemical compoenents of seminiferous tubule fluid are dif from plasma and testicular lymph - BTB separated haploid antigenic secondary spermatocytes, spermatids and sperm from the immune system in the adult - androgen binding protein - hromones and nutrients- testosterone binds to ABP in the seminiferous tubules which promotes spermatogenesis

Answer 48

- Is a stratified epithelium that lines the interior of the seminiferous tubules:unusual epithelium in that it is not like the epithelial tissues that cover or line other body structures. - In contrast to the other epithelial tissues, the seminiferous epithelium contains -->2 types of cells: 1) spermatogenetic cells (germ cells, gametes) and 2) Sertoli cells (support cells). - The spermatogenetic cells undergo a progressive differentiation(to form spermatozoa) as they move from the periphery of the seminiferous tubules toward their hollow lumen into which they are released. The spermatozoa then pass through the genital ducts to reach the exterior. As the spermatozoa pass through the genital ducts, the accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands), release their secretory products into the genital duct lumen, to form semen (fluids and sperm).

Answer 49

1) Luminal Compartment (contains:) i. Spermatozoa (cells closest to the lumen) ii. Spermatids iii. Secondary Spermatocytes iv. Primary Spermatocytes 2) Basal Epithelial Compartment i. Is basal to the zonulae occludentes (ZO) formed by the Sertoli cells ii. ZO form the blood-testis barrier which segregates the luminal compartment from the CT, that is, it shields the forming gametes from the immune system iii. Contains spermatogonia and early primary spermatocytes

Answer 50

The Sertoli cells span the basal epithelial compartment and luminal compartment of the seminiferous epithelium. Sertoli cells form zonula occludens junctions that subdivide the seminiferous epithelium into the luminal compartment and the basal epitheliam compartment

Answer 51

a. Spermatids (most mature) b. Secondary Spermatocytes c. Primary Spermatocytes d. Spermatogonia (most immature) e. Umbilical vesicle (yolk sac) gives rise to primordial germ cells which in turn differentiate into spermatogonia

Answer 52

maturation process of spermatogenetic cells - begins in response to pit gonadotropin release shortly before puberty - 74 days for spermatogomium to transition thrgouh the process of spermatogenesis - 12 more days for sperms to pass through epididymis 3 phases: Spermatogonial, spermatocyte, spermatid

Answer 53

- Occurs in the basal compartment a) Is the process by which spermatogonia differentiate into primary spermatocytes b) spermatogonia (in basal compartment), rest directly on the basal lamina and have 46 single chromatid chromosomes (2n - 2d) - There are 3 types of spermatogonia: i) Type A dark spermatogonia ii) Type A pale spermatogonia iii) Type B spermatogonia- undergo mitosis to form primary spermatocytes (2n - 2d) - Prior to Meiosis I, the 46 single chromatid chromosomes (2n - 2d) in the primary spermatocytes duplicate during the S-phase of Interphase to form 46 double chromatid chromosomes (2n - 4d)

Answer 54

- Occurs in the luminal compartment a) Is the process by which primary spermatocytes differentiate into spermatids b) p rimary Spermatocytes (in luminal compartment)- Are the largest cells of the seminiferous epithelium. The thick, coiled chromosomes in their nucleus make these cells to appear as if they have a spider in their nucleus. they have (2n - 4d) - Primary spermatocytes enter Meiosis I, to form secondary spermatocytes that have 23 double chromatid chromosomes (1n - 2d) --->there is no DNA replication prior to Meiosis II c) Secondary Spermatocytes- Are rarely observed because they enter Meiosis II immediately, to form spermatids that have 23 single chromatid chromosomes (1n - 1d)

Answer 55

- Occurs in the luminal compartment a) Is the process by which spermatids are transformed (remodeled) into spermatozoa (sperm) b) Spermatids-Are very small cells, with round dense nuclei, occur in groups next to the lumen c) Transform into spermatozoa (sperm) (1n - 1d) -Are nonmotile

Answer 56

1. Are embedded in the loose connective tissue (LCT) derived from the tunica vasculosa, and are wedged between the seminiferous tubules; appear in groups 2. Are endocrine cells a. SER, some RER, mitochondria, GA, lipid droplets, no vesicles, crystals of Reinke (function unknown) b. are stimulated by gonadotropins (FSH, LH) to synthesize and secrete testosterone i. Testosterone is not stored in vesicles within the cell but is released as soon as it is manufactured, into the extracellular space where it passes into the capillaries 3. Are active during early prenatal development. Become inactive at 5 months of fetal life. Resume androgen production at puberty.

Answer 57

Spermatozoa are formed in the seminiferous epithelium lining the seminiferous tubules and then pass through the following genital ducts to reach the exterior of the body → tubuli recti → rete testis → efferent ductules → duct of the epididymis → ductus deferens (vas deferens) → ejaculatory duct → urethra

Answer 58

1. Tubuli Recti (L. "straight tubules") a. Lined by Sertoli cells b. Lined by simple cuboidal epithelium in the distal end 2. Rete Testis a. Labyrinthine spaces, "maze" b. Lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium or low columnar

Answer 59

1. Epididymis (contains the efferent ductules and duct of the epididymis) - This is where sperm acquire motility. Motility is likely due to changes in intracellular levels of cAMP, Ca2+ and pH 2. Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens) 3. Ejaculatory Duct

Answer 60

- Extratesticular (Excurrent) Genital Ducts - Simple columnar epithelium - Basal lamina - Subepithelial CT - folded' - NO SMOOTH MUSCLE

Answer 61

- Extratesticular (Excurrent) Genital Ducts - Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with stereocilia b. Basal lamina c. Loose fibroelastic CT - folded d. Smooth muscle coat: inner layer - longitudinal; middle layer - circular; outer layer - longitudinal e. Loose fibroelastic CT f. Ampulla: Is the dilated end of the ductus deferens; Joins the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct

Answer 62

- Extratesticular (Excurrent) Genital Ducts - This is where sperm acquire motility. Motility is likely due to changes in intracellular levels of cAMP, Ca2+ and pH 1) Efferent Ductules= pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium (“sawtooth” appearance) - Basal Lamina - Thin loose CT - Smooth muscle cells - circularly arranged - Function: The apical cell membrane invaginations resorb fluid (that was released by Sertoli cells) from the lumen, by endocytosis - the cilia sweep the spermatozoa toward the epididymis 2) Duct of Epididymis - regions: head, body, tail (is a reservoir for mature sperm), tortuous - Epithelial lining: Pseudostratified columnar - basal cells (are stem cells) - Principal cells: Have pinocytotic vesicles and stereocilia (non-motile microvilli) on their luminal surface - Resorb luminal fluid, clean up cytoplasmic fragments - Release glycerophosphocholine, a glycoprotein that inhibits sperm capacitation - Basal lamina - Loose connective tissue - Smooth muscle layer - Peristaltic contractions

Answer 63

- Accessory MALE Genital GlandsEpithelium 1. Epitehlium: Pseudostratified columnar epithelium - Short round basal cells (stem cells) - Tall noncilliated columnar cells 2. Subepithelial CT - is fibroelastic 3. Smooth muscle coat 4. Thin fibrous coat covers the smooth muscle coat 5. Function – controlled by testosterone a. secretion of viscous, yellow, fructose-rich seminal fluid with a.a.'s, ascorbic acid, prostaglandins, and proteins

Answer 64

- Accessory MALE Genital Glands 1. Is the largest accessory gland, chestnut-shaped 2. Capsule - Dense irregular collagenous CT (highly vascular) - Smooth muscle cells 3. CT Stroma - Arises from the capsule - Same composition as the capsule 4. Tubuloalveolar glands, arranged into 3 concentric layers - Mucosal layer - inner layer, has small glands - Submucosal layer - intermediate layer, has larger glands c. Peripheral layer - has the main prostatic glands, the largest glands d. Simple to pseudostratified columnar epithelium-Synthesize proteins e. Prostatic concretions (corpora amylacea)-calcified glycoproteins

Answer 65

- Accessory MALE Genital Glands 1. Located at the proximal end of the membranous urethra 2. Capsule - Fibroelastic CT - Gives rise to septa which divide the gland into lobules 3. Compound tubuloalveolar glands - Simple cuboidal to simple columnar epithelium - Secrete thick, slippery fluid to lubricate lumen of urethra

Answer 66

- Erectile Tissue- 3 columns, each covered by a dense, fibrous, CT capsule, the tunica albuginea - --> 2 corpora cavernosa - dorsally and 1 corpus spongiosum - ventrally

Answer 67

-glycoproteins form in lumen = squeeze urethra = urinary problems in men over 50

Answer 68

smooth and convex

Answer 69

- is a depression in the kidney's concave surface 1. Opens into the renal sinus 2. Is the site where vessels and nerves pass into or leave the kidney 3. Ureter exits kidney a. Renal pelvis - is the funnel-shaped, expanded, proximal end of the ureter

Answer 70

- Is a fat-filled cavity enclosing the following: - Branches of the renal artery and vein, lymph vessels - Ureter and nerve fibers

Answer 71

Its outer layer has collagen and fibroblasts, its inner layer has myofibroblasts

Answer 72

1. Is the outer region of the kidney 2. The cortical tissue overlying the base of a pyramid is the cortical arch 3. The cortex consists of alternating regions, the cortical labyrinth and medullary rays

Answer 73

- consists of the regions between the medullary rays. It contains the following structures: - Renal corpuscles (L. corpuscle, "little body"); Convoluted tubules (PCT, DCT); Collecting tubules

Answer 74

- (400 – 500 longitudinal striations). - consist of medullary tissue that extends from the base of the pyramids into the cortex. - Each medullary ray consists of: Straight tubules (straight proximal, straight distal); Collecting ducts

Answer 75

cortex --> filtered here by glomeruli

Answer 76

1. Is the inner region of the kidney. It consists of the renal pyramids and the renal columns (of Bertin) 2. Renal pyramids there are 8 - 18 per kidney a. Apex (is known as the renal papilla, L. "nipple") i. Area cribrosa (L. "strainer") a) Consists of ~ 20 openings of the ducts of Bellini ii. Projects and drains / empties into a minor calyx b. Base (at corticomedullary border) 3. renal columns (of Bertin) (consisting of cortical tissue), project between the medullary pyramids. They reside within and are part of the medulla. They include: straight tubules (of the nephrons); collecting ducts 4. Vasa recta (L. "straight vessels") 5. 5 - 10% of blood flowing through the kidney is in the medulla

Answer 77

- Cup-like, funnel-shaped | - Receives apex of one pyramid

Answer 78

Several minor calyces converge and open (and drain) into a major calyx ---> INTO RENAL PELVIS

Answer 79

1. A renal pyramid 2. Associated cortical tissue at the base of the pyramid 3. Associated cortical columns (of Bertin) (one half of each adjacent renal column) 4. The human kidney is multilobar (has multiple lobes)

Answer 80

-consists of a central medullary ray and surrounding cortical tissue: A collecting duct and all its collecting tubules

Answer 81

- (Nephron + Collecting Tubule) - It consists of epithelium and is covered by a basal lamina on its exterior - nephron - collecting tubule - papillary collecting ducts (of bellini)

Answer 82

- part of Uriniferous Tubule - renal corpuscle - thin limbs of henles loops - distal tubule - proximal convoluted and straight - collecing tubule

Answer 83

NEPHRON --> "little body" a) Glomerulus (L. “tuft of wool”) i) is a cluster of fenestrated capillaries ii) is an arterio-capillary bed iii) glomerular ultrafiltrate oozes out of glomerulus by passing through the filtration barrier == b) Bowman's Capsule i) is the proximal end of the nephron ii) visceral layer of Bowman's capsule: covers glomerulus (cluster of capillaries): is composed of podocytes**** (i) primary (major) processes (ii) secondary processes (pedicels)- **filtration slits have a slit** diaphragm iii) parietal layer of Bowman's capsule: simple squamous epithelium: covered by a basal lamina c) Bowman's space (urinary space) i) is the space between the visceral and parietal layers of Bowman's capsule ii) contains ultrafiltrate*** d) Vascular Pole - site where the i) afferent glomerular arteriole enters the renal corpuscle=Mesangial cells (PHAGOCYTIC CELL - IT CHECKS THE FENESTRATE FOR OCCLUSIONS -- THEY EAT IT AND LET MOER BASAL SHIT TO GROW) ii) efferent glomerular arteriole leaves the renal corpuscl=greater resistance to blood flow e) URINARY POLE - contains the initial part of the i) Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) f) FILTRATION BARRIER – from inside outward, it consists of i) endothelial surface layer of glomerular capillaries (glycocalyx glycoproteins) ii) ***fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillary (no diaphragms over fenestrations) iii) basal lamina****** (produced by endothelium and podocytes) iv) subpodocyte space v) visceral layer of Bowman's capsule (podocytes - primary process ( raised off basal lamina) and secondary processes (pedicells- on basal lamina). Pedicells interdigitate with filtration slits bw. Have nephrin protein made diaphragm) -The filtration barrier has 2 discontinuous layers (ii and v above)

Answer 84

``` nephron -->Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) i) simple cuboidal epithelium ii) striking eosinophilic, granular cytoplasm iii) microvilli ("striated border") iv) basement membrane (PAS+) b) Proximal Straight Tubule (THICK Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle) – similar structure as PCT LUMEN LOOKS MURKY ```

Answer 85

a) Thin Descending Limb – makes a hairpin turn b) Henle's Loop – is the entire U-shaped portion of a nephron c) Thin Ascending Limb – segment after hairpin turn d) entire thin limb is lined with simple squamous epithelium

Answer 86

a) Distal Straight Tubule = (THICK ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle) i)low cuboidal epithelium with few microvilli**** ii)more mitochondria than cells of PCT b)Macula Densa i)modified segment of the distal tubule ii)between afferent and efferent arterioles c)Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) i) much shorter and less tortuous than the PCT ii)wide, clear lumen iii)pale, granular cytoplasm iv)smaller cells, more cells per c/s profile SHORTER CLEAR LUMEN

Answer 87

a) Is part of the uriniferous tubule, but not part of the nephron b. The DCT empties into a connecting tubule or an arched collecting tubule that drains into a cortical collecting duct or a medullary collecting duct - columnar epithelium

Answer 88

a. Are formed as several medullary collecting tubules converge b. open in the area cribrosa c. Are lined with tall columnar epithelium -drain urine into minor calyx

Answer 89

macula densa and the JG cells. | -chemoreceptors only segment that is close to renal corpuscle

Answer 90

- part of Juxtaglomerular (JG) Apparatus - on the distal tubule - columnar cells

Answer 91

- of the afferent glomerular arteriole a. are modified smooth muscle cells*** in the tunica media of the afferent glomerular arteriole b. granules contain renin (a proteolytic enzyme)

Answer 92

- Reside in the interval bordered by the i. Afferent arteriole ii. Macula densa iii. Efferent arteriole iv. Vascular pole of the renal corpuscle

Answer 93

1. Contains a small amount of connective tissue | 2. Fibroblasts, Macrophages

Answer 94

Renal artery → anterior and posterior division → segmental arteries → lobar arteries → interlobar arteries → arcuate arteries → interlobular arteries → afferent glomerular arterioles

Answer 95

- Minor Calyx - Major Calyces - Pelvis of the Kidney (Renal Pelvis) - Ureter - Urinary Bladder - Urethra

Answer 96

1. Funnel-shaped 2. Receives urine from the renal papilla of a single renal pyramid a. Renal papilla is covered by transitional epithelium 3. Lined by transitional epithelium***** 4. Lamina propria 5. Smooth muscle layer

Answer 97

1. May receive urine from up to 4 minor calyces | 2. Structure is similar to minor calyces

Answer 98

1. Funnel-shaped, upper expanded portion of ureter | 2. Structure is similar to minor and major calyces

Answer 99

1. Mucosa - is thrown into folds when ureter is empty a. Transitional epithelial lining b. Basal lamina c. Lamina propria i. Dense irregular fibroelastic CT 2. Muscularis a. upper 2/3 of ureter i. Outer circular layer ii. Inner longitudinal layer b. Lower 1/3 of ureter i. Outer longitudinal layer (extra layer) ii. Middle circular layer iii. Inner longitudinal layer 3. Ureters deliver urine to the urinary bladder via peristaltic waves produced by the muscularis and not by gravitational forces 4. Fibrous CT covering****

Answer 100

1. Mucosa – is thrown into folds when bladder is empty a. Epithelium i. Transitional epithelium b. Lamina Propria i. Superficial – dense irregular collagenous CT ii. Deeper – loose layer of CT (collagen and elastic fibers) 2. muscularis a. 3 layers of smooth muscle b. middle layer forms the internal sphincter muscle 3. Adventitia a. Dense irregular collagenous CT b. Elastic fibers c. Attaches bladder to surrounding structures 4. Serosa (peritoneum) covers part of the bladder

Answer 101

1> Mucosa i. Epithelium a) lined by transitional epithelium near bladder b) stratified squamous nonkeratinized lines remaining urethra ii.lamina Propria a) fibroelastic b) glands of Littre (mucous) 2> Muscularis (smooth muscle) i. inner longitudinal layer ii. outer circular layer 3> External urethral sphincter: skeletal muscle – where the urethra penetrates the UG diaphragm

Answer 102

a. Prostatic Urethra – lies within the prostate, transitional epithelium b. Membranous Urethra – traverses the UG diaphragm i. lined by stratified columnar epithelium ii. pseudostratified columnar epithelium in some areas c. Spongy Urethra (penile urethra) – in the corpus spongiosum i. pseudostratified columnar epithelium ii. stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium in the distal end d. Lamina Propria: loose fibroelastic CT, very vascular, glands of Littre (mucous)

Answer 103

(tumor) – new (abnormal) growth: growth may be benign or malignant. The term cancer is reserved for malignant neoplasms NO DISTINCTION BW MALIGNANT AND BENIGN

Answer 104

study of tumors

Answer 105

i. Fibroma – benign tumor that is fibrous or developed CT ii. Chondroma – benign growth of hyaline cartilage iii. Adenoma – epithelial cell benign tumor; epithelial cells form a glandular structure or are derived from glandular tissue. iv. Hemangioma – benign tumor of newly formed blood vessels v. Lymphoma – benign tumor of lymphoid tissue vi. Papilloma – benign epithelial tumor of the skin or mucous membrane (i.e., mucosa) possessing finger-like projections vii. Polyp – benign protrusion from a mucous membrane (i.e., mucosa)

Answer 106

i. Sarcoma – tumors derived from derivatives of mesenchymal connective tissue ii. Carcinoma – tumors derived from epithelial cells iii. Mesothelioma and melanoma are two examples of several of malignant tumors that do not follow the rule (HAS -OMA ENDING BUT THIS IS FRICKIN DEADLY.. EXCEPTION TO -OMA RULE LIKE MELANOMA AS WELL)

Answer 107

Occurs due to divergent differentiation

Answer 108

- Tumor derived from more than one germ layer. - benign or malignant - hair

Answer 109

an assessment to which tumor cells resemble comparable normal cells, both structurally and functionally

Answer 110

a state where tumor cells lack differentiation | -tripolar spindles during mitosis?

Answer 111

cells and nuclei are variable in size and shape

Answer 112

– nuclei contain an abundance of DNA and are hyperchromatic; nuclei are also larger than normal with large nucleoli

Answer 113

large numbers of mitoses are usually found; mitotic spindles are unusual as they may be tripolar, quadripolar, or multipolar

Answer 114

cells lose their normal organization

Answer 115

grow slowly and are confined to their site of origin. Usually develop a capsule thus forming a plane of separation from normal tissue.

Answer 116

not discrete masses as they invade and destroy neighboring tissue. Lack a capsule though slow growing malignant tumors may develop one

Answer 117

- Direct seeding of cavities or surfaces (malignant or cancer) - lymphatic - hematogenous spread (liver and lungs) - perineural invasion and spread (CT around a nerve)

Answer 118

benign-Well differentiated; structure may be typical of tissue of origin maligannt-Some lack of differentiation – with anaplasia; structure is often atypical

Answer 119

benign-Usually progressive and slow maligannt-Erratic and may be slow to rapid; mitotic figures may be numerous and abnormal

Answer 120

benign-Usually cohesive and expansile, well-demarcated masses that do not invade or infiltrate the surrounding normal tissues maligannt-Locally invasive, infiltrating the surrounding normal tissues; sometimes may seem cohesive and expansile but with microscopic invasion

Answer 121

benign-DOES NOT HAPPEN maligannt-Frequently present; the larger and less differentiated the primary, the more likely the metastases

Answer 122

Prostate/breast Lung Colorectal

Answer 123

i. Most common cancer in men; second leading cause of death due to cancer ii. In 70% of cases the adenocarcinoma arises in the peripheral zone of the prostate gland; usually in the posterior location iii. Malignant glands are crowded and the cytoplasm of the malignant cells is darkly stained iv. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and prostate serum acid phosphatase (PSAP) are serum markers of prostate cancer. v. Cancer-suppressor genes are lost early in carcinogenesis; p53 mutations occur late in the course of the disease*** vi. Loss of E-cadherin, a cell adhesion molecule*** vii. Hematogenous spread to the vertebral column***

Answer 124

i. 50% of breast cancers are found in the upper lateral quadrant ii. Almost all breast cancers are adenocarcinomas iii. Breast carcinomas are divided into two broad categories a. Carcinoma in situ b. Invasive carcinoma iv. 70-80% of breast cancers express estrogen receptors v. Some cancer cells lack E-cadherin; therefore, they appear singly or as loose cell clusters vi. Some cancer cells overexpress human epidermal growth factor receptors (HER2) vii. Mutations of BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 genes occurs in 25% of familial breast cancers

Answer 125

- Architecture of colonic adenomas: a. Pedunculated b. Sessile –villous type- greater malignant potential

Answer 126

- MOST COMMON- cecum and ascending = 38% & sigmoid/rectal = 35% - traverse and descending = 18%

Answer 127

- angiotensinogen converted into renin - renin into angiotensinogen I - I converted into angiotensinogen II by ACE enzyme - constricts arterioles and stim secretion of aldosterone - increase fluid volume via constriction and uptake of NA and Cl (pulls water in)

Answer 128

its malignant for sureeeee

Answer 129

i. Most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide ii. 75% of lung cancers originate from the primary, secondary, or tertiary bronchi iii. Bronchial epithelium transforms to cancerous cells iv. Four main categories of lung cancer a. Squamous cell carcinoma – most commonly found in men and is tightly correlated to SMOKING b. Adenocarcinoma – most common type of lung cancer in women and nonsmokers c. Small cell carcinoma – highly malignant - SMOKING d. Large cell carcinoma – undifferentiated

Answer 130

small cell carcinoma

Answer 131

squamous cell and small cell