Test 4

Question 1

Darwin’s theory of natural selection

Answer 1

states that members of a species who have characteristics that are best adapted to the environment are the ones who survive
and REPRODUCE passing on their genes to the next generation.

Question 2

digust

Answer 2

An evolved psychological system
that biases behaviour to stop us
from coming into contact with
things that might make us sick.

Question 3

universality hypothesis

Answer 3

Darwin put forth a “universality hypothesis” suggesting that facial expressions of emotion were passed
down through evolution from our ancestors and are thus UNIVERSAL
among humans. Therefore, facial expressions should be understood across CULTURES asthey are biologically “hard wired” from birth.

EG isolated tribes we reconisie express and so do they

Question 4

Ekman 6 EMOTIONS

Answer 4

• Ekman’s research provided evidence that 6 basic facial expressions (Happiness, sadness, anger, fear,
  surprise, and disgust) are well recognised across cultures
  Thus, supporting Darwin’s universality hypothesis.

this is important because facial expressions give us important signals about the ,good and thus the threats around us

Question 5

what are facial expressions

Answer 5

• The physiological component of emotion is the
  BODY’S
  reaction to an emotion causing stimulus.

Question 6

Nervous system “chart”

Answer 6

The Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System Composed of:
1.5 BRAIN
1.5 SPINAL CORD
2. Peripheral Nervous System
Made up of the nerves (bunches of neurons) connecting the central nervous system to therest of the body
***See divisions of Peripheral Nervous System in chart below

Question 7

Peripheral Nervous System chart

Answer 7

splits into
1. Somatic Peripheral Nervous System
and
2. Autonomic Peripheral Nervous System

2 splits into
2.a Sympathetic Autonomic
Nervous System
and
2.b Parasympathetic Autonomic
Nervous System

Question 8

Somatic Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 8

Interacts with the EXTERNAL environment (gathering information from sensory systems and interacting with skeletal
muscles to allow for movement).

Question 9

Autonomic Peripheral
Nervous System

Answer 9

Interacts with
internal
body parts that function
involuntarily without
our awareness.

Question 10

Sympathetic Autonomic
Nervous System

Answer 10

Active in threatening situations
and prompts changes in the
body that prepare us for energy
expenditure
We call this our
“fight or flight response”

Question 11

Parasympathetic Autonomic
Nervous System

Answer 11

Acts to bring us back to normal
when there are no longer any
threats present. It activates
functions that occur during a
relaxed state and promotes the
conservation
of energy (“rest and digest”)

Question 12

fear

Answer 12

The part of the brain called the amygdala is central to our fear reactions. When presented with a
fear causing stimulus, the amygdala enables an ultrafast and AUTOMATIC
“ The “instant panic” reaction of the amygdala has the evolutionary advantage of allowing us to react quickly to threats, promoting survival.

Question 13

what are emptional memories

Answer 13

” The amygdala also plays an important role in the creation of EMOTIONAL MEMORIES
which is useful because to survive, we should REMEMBER what is threatening in our ENVIRONEMENT

Question 14

how does the sympathetic nervous system activate

Answer 14

• The physiological responses resulting from the activation of the sympathetic nervous system are
  universal
  and biological response patterns accompanying emotions are
  innate
  (present from birth) pointing to evolutionary origins.

Question 15

Classical conditioning

Answer 15

Classical conditioning is a type of Learning
that occurs when we associate (link) two or more things together and are able to anticipate future events and thus react accordingly.

Question 16

Unconditioned stimulus (US):

Answer 16

A physical object, sound, or other event that an organism NATURALLY
responds to (no learning needed).

in Pavlov’s experiment the Us is the bread

Question 17

Unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 17

: A reflexive behaviour or feeling that is
naturally BROUGHT on by the unconditioned stimulus (no learning needed).

In Pavlov’s experiment the UR is:
drooling to the bread

Question 18

How should a creature react before it has been classically conditioned

Answer 18

Before classical conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
(US)
Leads to
Unconditioned Response
(UR)

Question 19

Neutral stimulus (NS):

Answer 19

A physical object, sound, or other event that has no meaning the organism
therefore it does not bring about any response
in particular.

in Pavlov’s experiment the S is the:

metronome

Question 20

Acquisition phase of classical conditioning

Answer 20

Neutral
Stimulus
(NS)
+
Unconditioned
Stimulus
(US)
=
Unconditioned
Response
(UR)

Through repeated pairings of the NS + US, the NS stimulus takes on a
new meanina
The organism has learned that the NS signals an upcoming event, as such it is no longer “neutral”, The
Ns is now called the…
* Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Question 21

• Conditioned stimulus (CS):

Answer 21

A physical object, sound, or other event that, through the process of
classical conditioning, the organism has
learned
something about.

In Pavlov’s experiment the CS is the:
metronome + Food or somere accurately it is the metronome but we know it has changed the NS and CS are always EXACLTY the same only the reaction changes

Question 22

Conditioned response (CR):

Answer 22

The
learned
behaviour or feeling that is caused by the
conditioned stimulus:
in Paviov’s experiment the cRis; drooling at the motronome

Question 23

what should all these terms look like in a chart

Answer 23

US: X
UR: Action at X
NS: Y
CS: Y
CR: Action at Y

Question 24

which steps shows us that classical conditionning has been achieved

Answer 24

The CR shows us that classical conditioning has indeed taken place! Even though the US is no longer
being presented, the organism
responds at its arrival based on the presence of the CS, and thus responds with the CR.

Question 25

Classical conditioning accomplished Conditioned

Answer 25

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Leads to Conditioned Response (CR)

Question 26

what is classical conditioning not

Answer 26

Not conscient not voluntary It involves a reaction that is reflexive and involuntary.

Question 27

Higher order conditioning

Answer 27

* Higher order conditioning occurs when an already learned Cs is paired with a NEW stimulus. The new stimulus becomes a second conditioned stimulus, even though it was directly paired with the US. DONE WHEN ALREADY CLASSICALLY CONDITIONED

Question 28

Acquisition phase of higher order classical conditioning Conditioned

Answer 28

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) + NEW neutral Stimulus (NS) = Conditioned Response (CR) Higher order classical conditioning accomplished NEW Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Leads to Conditioned Response (CR)

Question 29

example of Higher order conditioning

Answer 29

- For example, a square is repeatedly paired with the metronome, but never directly paired with the food. Despite how tricky this is, the dog will soon salivate to the scare alone

Question 30

Differentiation of stimuli

Answer 30

- Ideally, the organism should be able to differentiate stimuli in the environment (tell them apart) to know exaclty what stimuli predict what events (called differentiation),

Question 31

generalization

Answer 31

However, generalization often occurs, which is when a stimulus that is similar the CS (but not the same) elicits the CR. Example: eg metronome but clock illicits behaviour (CR) anyways

Question 32

Does classical conditioning last forever?

Answer 32

Extinction occurs when the CR will stop occurring in response to the CS. - Extinction happens when we present the CS repeatedly fades away because the organism established through classical conditioning.

Question 33

spontanious recovery

Answer 33

- Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes, even after extinction has occurred, the CS will elicit the CR another time after a rest period

Question 34

taste aversion

Answer 34

A common form of classical condinioning calild a conditioned taste aversion, occurs when we eat a particular food just before becoming. sick for a natural reason (food poisoning, eating too much, flu, etc.). We associate the food with feeling sick and learn to dislike it.

Question 35

what is a type of classical conditionwhich is particularly easy to establish

Answer 35

Organisms can be classically conditioned to dislike a food that makes them sick extremely easily presumably because taste aversions are crucially tied to survival.

Question 36

Notes on rat experiment:

Answer 36

NS: Sweat Water US: Litim Chloride o feeling sick NS+ US = UR: vomiting > rat will avoid sweet water

Question 37

pavlov (classical conditioning) vs rats (taste aversion)

Answer 37

Pavlov's experiment NS (metronome) + US (bread) > UR (drooling) - Repeatedly - Paired within seconds Conditioned taste aversion NS (sweet water) + US (lithium chloride) > UR (nausea) * once. - Paired after hours: of delay --- will work up to 24 hrs of delay - Unlike Pavlov's original experiment, taste aversions can be formed in as little as ONE PAIRING of the NS (taste) and US (getting sick) and with LONGER delays (up to 24hr) between thepairing of the NS (taste) and US (getting sick).

Question 38

Sensory processes

Answer 38

"Our SENSATIONS begin when receptor cells in sensory organs (eye, ear, etc.) are stimulated by physical energy (light waves, sound waves, etc.) or specific types of molecules (tastes or smells). * Because the brain cannot processes raw sensory data, receptor cells convert incoming signals into an ACTION POTENTIAL in a process called "transduction"

Question 39

example of a sensory process

Answer 39

" For example, in vision transduction is accomplished as LIGHT WAVES stimulate two types of receptor cells, called photoreceptors, which are located in the retina (tissue on the back wall of the eyeball):

Question 40

two types of photoreceptors

Answer 40

1. Rods: Useful for detecting shades of grey and function well in dim lighting conditions. 2. Cones: Useful for detecting colour and fine details, but need adequate light to work.

Question 41

Absolute threshold

Answer 41

" To find out the sensitivity of our sensory systems, we can search for absolute thresholds. That is, the SMALLEST DETECTABLE INTENSITY of a particular stimulus.

Question 42

absolute threshold number and explanation

Answer 42

How intense does a sensation need to be so that you can just barely detect it? - At very low levels, sometimes people will detect a stimulus and sometimes they won't. Thus, the absolute threshold is said to be the intensity of a stimulus for which people tend to detect the stimulus 50% of the time.

Question 43

positive sensory adaptation

Answer 43

The sensitivity of our sensory systems varies between individuals and is not set. For example, we can often adapt to the environment and become_- MORE sensitive to a hard to detect stimulus (called positive sensory adaptation).

Question 44

negative sensory adaptation).

Answer 44

- However, if we are exposed to a_ constant stimulus, we can actually become less sensitive to the sensation (negative sensory adaptation). * This occurs because as receptor cells fire action potentials in response to a constant stimulus they FATIGUE (slow down their rate of firing), which diminishes our sensory experience. eh smells become less noticeable with time

Question 45

difference threshold

Answer 45

* The difference threshold is the smallest detectable _change that people tend to be able to detect 50% of the time. - We need to change the intensity of a stimulus by a certain minimum percentage in order to tell that it is has changed.

Question 46

SENSATION DEFINITON

Answer 46

In effect, sensation refers to the detection of simple properties of stimuli/(sights, sounds, smells, etc.) and the coding of this information into action potentials. Sensation is a PHYSICAL process, not a psychological one.

Question 47

bottom-up processing

Answer 47

The first time we ever process a particular stimulus, we use bottom-up processing. This is when we build up to our experience from the ?????? individual pieces. We must sense the basic features of the stimulus and integrate them.

Question 48

top-down experience

Answer 48

When we experience a stimulus, we have knowledge and expectations in our minds. Top-down processing refers to when this knowledge and expectancy drives our experience of a stimulus. Examples: Drinks more saturated People thought they tasted sweater regardless of sugar

Question 49

perception

Answer 49

-Perception is the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into something meaningfu Perception is how we consciously experience sensation, and it involves BOTH bottom-up and top-down processing.

Question 50

Attention

Answer 50

- Information floods our sensory systems all of the time. We cannot ???? and process everything. Thus, attention plays a major role in what we perceive.

Question 51

INTERGRATION

Answer 51

We must construct our perceptions in a fraction of a second by _ INTERGRATING the "work" of various neurons with different functions. With all the sensory information we receive, an important job in perception is to figure out which elements GO TOGETHER and which are SEPARATE

Question 52

What is the role of perception

Answer 52

Ultimately, through perception, we are able to assign MEANING to what it is that we have taken in through the senses.

Question 53

How do we perceive depth?

Answer 53

* An important process in vision is depth perception: Our ability to know what is CLOSE and what is FAR in order to perceive the world in 3D. * The tissue at the back of the eye onto which light is projected (the retina) is a 2D receiving only 2D information, the brain must search for subtle " cues surface. Thus, " that provide information about our 3D world called depth cues:

Question 54

- Interposition:

Answer 54

When one object partially blocks another from view, we perceive the blocked object as being further away .

Question 55

- Relative size:

Answer 55

Larger objects are perceived as being closer to the viewer and smaller objects are perceived as being further away

Question 56

- Linear perspective:

Answer 56

Parallel lines are the same distance apart, but they appear to grow closer together as they recede into the distance.

Question 57

- Texture gradient:

Answer 57

Objects that are close have sharply defined and detailed features, but similar objects farther away appear progressively less defined and hazy.

Question 58

- Light and Shadow:

Answer 58

Shadows that are cast by objects can often provide clues to the object's position in space. The eye also receives more reflected light from objects that are closer to us.

Question 59

5 depth perception cues

Answer 59

- Interposition: - Light and Shadow: - Texture gradient: - Linear perspective: - Relative size:

Question 60

binocular vision

Answer 60

Because our eyes are 2 ½2 world. Binocular disparity refers to the inches apart, our retinas receive two slightly different views of the captured by the right and left eye. difference between the information - When visual information from the left and right eye arrives at the brain, it is Merged into one view. - Binocular disparity provides the brain with information about depth because the an object is from us, the s disparity there is between the images received by each retina. - As the brain merges the two views of the eyes into one, it takes binocular disparity into account in order to allow us to "see" things as far away (if there was little disparity) or close up (if there was a lot of disparity).

Question 61

- Synaesthesia

Answer 61

- Synaesthesia is a condition in which sensory information is processed by the wrong part of the brain. It causes people to experience INVOLUNTARY perceptions that don't match up with the outside world (for example "seeing" a taste).