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Anatomy And Physiology 2 > Test 3 - Urinary, Reproductive, Genetics > Flashcards

Test 3 - Urinary, Reproductive, Genetics Flashcards

1
Q

3 Main Functions of Kidneys

A

1) Regulate volume, composition and pH of bodily fluids
2) Remove metabolic waste from blood (nitrogenous and sulfur-containing products of protein metabolism)
3) Control rate of red blood cell production, blood pressure, and calcium absorption by activating Vitamin D

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2
Q

Afferent/Efferent

A

Afferent: convey towards
Efferent: convey away

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3
Q

Glomerulonephritis

A
  • Bacterial infection in kidneys
  • Block the glomerular capillaries
  • Capillaries become too permeable; allowing plasma proteins and RBC to enter urine
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4
Q

Urine contains ____, _____, and ______

A

wastes; excess water; electrolytes

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5
Q

Urine is the final product of these 3 processes:

A

1) Glomerular filtration (180 liters of fluid)
2) Tubular reabsorption (most of 180 liters of fluid reabsorbed)
3) Tubular secretion (substances that body must eliminate)

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6
Q

Urinary excretion =

A

glomerular filtration + tubular secretion - tubular reabsorption

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7
Q

Glomerular Capillaries

A

-Specialized for filtration

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8
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A
  • Substances move from the renal tubules into the interstitial fluid where they go into the peritubular capillaries
  • Composition changes in filtrate but not in urine
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9
Q

Tubular secretion

A

-Renal tubule specialized to control movement of substances from the blood into the renal tubule

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10
Q

Glomerular Filtration

A
  • Substances move from blood to glomerular capsule
  • Small molecules and ions only
  • Proteins are restricted
  • Glomerular capillaries are much more permeable
  • Glomerular filtrate has the same composition as tissue fluid (which is a lot like blood plasma, except w/o large protein molecules)
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11
Q

Main force that moves substances by filtration through the glomerular capillary wall is…

A

… hydrostatic pressure of the blood inside, which is high compared to other capillaries

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12
Q

Outward force, glomerular hydrostatic pressure =

A

+60 mm (look at diagram dude!)

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13
Q

Inward force of plasma colloid osmotic pressure =

A

-32 mm (look at diagram dude!)

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14
Q

Inward force of capsular hydrostatic pressure

A

-18 mm (look at diagram, dude!)

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15
Q

Net filtration pressure

A

+10 mm (look at diagram dude!)

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16
Q

___ is directly proportional to ______

A

Glomerular filtration rate; net filtration pressure

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17
Q

Net filtration pressure =

A

= force favoring filtration (glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure) - forces opposing filtration (capsular hydrostatic pressure and glomerular capillary osmotic pressure)

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18
Q

3 Forces responsible for Filtration Rates

A

-Normally the glomerular net filtration pressure is positive, causing filtration

1) Glomerular Hydrostatic pressure
2) Osmotic pressure
3) Hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the glomerular capsule

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19
Q

Glomerular hydrostatic pressure

A
  • Influences glomerular filtration rate
  • Vasoconstrict, which changes the diameter of arteries and changes pressure
  • Vasoconstricts of afferent and efferent arterioles have oppposite effects
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20
Q

Osmotic pressure

A
  • Influences glomerular filtration rate

- High concentration of blood plasma protein increase osmotic pressure, and decrease glomerular filtration rate

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21
Q

Hydrostatic pressure in glomerular capsule

A
  • Influence glomerular filtration rate
  • It may change as the results of obstruction, fluids back up into the renal tubules and increase the pressure in the capsule
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22
Q

Proximal convoluted tubule

A
  • Reabsorbs 70%
  • Glucose, water, proteins, and creatine
  • Amino, lactic, citric and uric acids
  • Phosphate, sulfate, calcium, potassium, and sodium ions
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23
Q

4 Features of Peritubular Capillary Blood that helps reabsorption

A

1) Low pressure
2) More permeable than other capillaries
3) High rate of glomerular filtration increase the protein concentration in plasma, therefore increases the osmotic pressure in the peritubular capillary plasma
4) Epithelial cells on the convoluted portion of the tubule have microvilli which increase surface area

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24
Q

3 Limits of Active Transport

A

1) Limited transport capacity
2) Glucose renal plasma threshold (too much glucose in blood, concentration gradient too high, cannot reabsorb)
3) Osmotic diuresis (non-reabsorbed glucose increases the osmotic concentration in tubular fluid > less water reabsorbed by capillaries, increase in urine volume)

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25
Q

Water reabsorption

A

Passively by osmosis, and closely related to sodium reabsorption

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26
Q

Sodium reabsorption

A
  • Active transport
  • When sodium reabsorption increases, then water reabsorption increases
  • Positive charged ions attract negative ions crossing membrane, and also increase osmotic pressure
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27
Q

______ reabsorb ___ ions and ___, and at the _____ of the tubule, osmotic equilibrium is reached.

A

proximal convoluted tubules; 70%; water; end

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28
Q

Isotonic Tubular Fluid pathway

A

1) Sodium ions are reabsorbed by active transport
2) Negatively charged ions are attracted to positively charged ions
3) As concentration of ions (solute) increases in plasma, osmotic pressure increases
4) Water moves from proximal tubule to capillary by osmosis

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29
Q

The Nephrotic Syndrome

A

Increased permeability of glomerular membrane -> plasma protein entering the urine -> low osmotic pressure (less ions in plasma!) -> edema

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30
Q

Distal convoluted tubule

A
  • Na+ goes from ascending loop into peritubular capillary (reabsorption)
  • K+ or H+ go from peritubular capillary into collecting duct (secretion)
  • Hydrogen ions make urine acidic
  • Potassium ions are attracted to negatively charged regions
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31
Q

Urine formation

A
  • Glomerular filtration of materials from blood plasma
  • Tubular reabsorption of substances: glucose, water, urea, sodium
  • Tubular secretion of substances: hydrogen ions, potassium ions
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32
Q

Countercurrent Mechanism

A
  • In descending and ascending limps
  • Ensures that medullary interstitial fluid becomes hypertonic
  • Creates a large osmotic gradient for water reabsorption in the interstitial fluid surrounding the distal convoluted tubules
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33
Q

Hypotonic

A

Refers to a solution with lower concentration of solutes (lower osmotic pressure)

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34
Q

Hypertonic

A

Refers to a solution with higher concentration of solutes (higher osmotic pressure)

35
Q

Nephron Loop Diagram

A

[Look at diagram, slide 28]
[Increasing NaCl concentration in as we go down the loop from glomerulus]

End of convoluted tubule: isotonic fluid

Descending limb: permeable to water but relatively impermeable to solutes (water out!)

Medullary interstitial fluid: hypertonic fluid

Thick ascending limb: impermeable to water; reabsorption of Na+, K+

36
Q

ADH

A
  • Antidiuretic hormone
  • Stimulates cells on tube wall to insert proteins into the cell wall
  • Forms water channels, increases permeability to water
  • This increases water reabsorption, and concentrates the urine
37
Q

Maintenance of acid-base balance usually eliminates acids in of 3 ways:

A

1) Acid-base buffer systems
2) Respiration excretion of carbon dioxide
3) Renal excretion of H+ ions

38
Q

Respiratory Secretion of CO2

A

1) Cells increase production of CO2
2) CO2 reacts w/ H2O to produce H2CO3
3) H2CO3 releases H+
4) Respiratory center is stimulated
5) Rate and depth of breathing increases
6) More CO2 is eliminated through lungs

39
Q

Time course of pH regulation

A
  • Acid-base buffers function rapidly

- Respiratory and renal function slowly

40
Q

Acidosis

A

Results from the accumulation of acids or loss of bases, both of which cause abnormal increases in the H+ ion concentration of bodily fluids

41
Q

Alkalosis

A

Results from a loss of acids or accumulation of bases accompanied by a decrease in H+ ion concentration

42
Q

Meiosis I

A
  • Separates homologous (the same, gene for gene) pairs
  • May not be identical because a gene may have variants
  • goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell

1) Prophase I
2) Metaphase I
3) Anaphase I
4) Telophase I

43
Q

Prophase I

A
  • Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange fragments (crossing over)
  • Genetic variability
44
Q

Formation of Sperm Cell

A

1) 46 chromosomes, each with 2 chromatids
2) Puberty happens, hormone stimulation
3) 23 chromosomes, each with 2 chromatids
4) Formation of spermatids, 23 chromosomes, each chromatid now an independent chromosome
5) SPERM CELL

45
Q

GnRH

A
  • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

- Also called luteinizing hormone

46
Q

LH

A
  • In males, called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)
  • Promotes development of interstitial cells of the testes, that release male sex hormone
47
Q

FSH

A
  • Stimulates meiosis in primary spermatocyte to form immature sperm cells
  • Together with testosterone, stimulate spermatogenic cells, giving rise to sperms
48
Q

Male Sex Hormones

A
  • called androgens
  • testosterone is most important
  • secretion continues throughout life of a male
49
Q

Androgens

A
  • Stimulate the development of male secondary sex characteristics and maturation of sperm cells
  • Prevent overseccretion of GnRH and LH (negative feedback loop)
50
Q

Inhibin

A

Prevents oversecretion of FSH

51
Q

Oogonia

A
  • During prenatal development, divide by mitosis to produce more oogonia
  • Develops into primary ooctyes
52
Q

Primary Oocyte

A
  • form PRIMORDIAL FOLLICE
  • No new ones form ^
  • Only 400/500 oocytes released during reproductive life
53
Q

Oogenesis

A

1) Primary oocyte: 46 chromosomes, each with 2 chromatids
2) Puberty happens; first meiotic division; cytoplasm distributed unevenly, polar body degenerates
3) Secondary oocyte: 23 chromosomes, each with 2 chromatids
4) Sperm cell (23 chromosomes) enters, second meiotic division occurs
5) Second polar body degrades, zygote forms: 46 chromosomes, 23 from sperm and 23 from egg

54
Q

Zygote

A
  • 46 chromosomes
  • 23 chromosomes from egg and 23 from sperm
  • Each chromatid now an independent chromosomes
55
Q

Follice Maturation during reproductive cycle

A
  • Oocyte enlarge
  • Primary follice; secondary follice
  • As many as twenty primary follicles mature at one time
  • One dominant follice outgrows the other, others degrade
56
Q

Ovarian events

A

Developing follicle -[follicular phase]-> mature follicle > ovulation > early corpus luteum -[luteal phase]-> regressive corpus luteum > corpus albicans

57
Q

FSH and LH increase before…..

A

…. ovulation, go down right after

58
Q

Ovulation

A
  • Mature follice secretes estrogen that inhibits release of LH from pituitary gland but allow LH to be stored
  • Near 14th day, LH is released and breaks follicular wall
  • Follicular expands, giving rise to corpeus luteum
59
Q

Corpus luteum

A
  • Created when follicular cells expand

- Also called yellow body,

60
Q

Phase that secretes estrogen and progesterone

A

Follicular phase

61
Q

High levels of estrogen and progesterone…

A

…. inhibit LH and FSH, hence no more follicle

62
Q

Regressive corpeus luteum

A
  • If not fertilized, die out > estrogen/progesterone go down > blood vessels constrict > low O2 and nutrients > lining tissue disintegrate > blood and cellular debris form menstrual flow
  • Hypothalamus and pituitary gland are not inhibited, so LH, FSH again and new cycle starts
63
Q

3 Phases

A

Menstruation, Proliferation, Secretory phase

64
Q

Secretory phase

A

Endometrium (inner membrane of uterus) becomes more favorable environment for embryo development

65
Q

After fertilization….

A
  • Blastocyst develops
  • trophoblast develops into structure that assist the embryo
  • Inner cell mass that will be embryo appears
66
Q

Trophoblast

A
  • Secretes hCG (maintains corpeus luteum)
  • keeps immune system from rejecting blastocyst
  • helps develop placenta
67
Q

Implantation

A
  • Blastocyst release enzymes that digest endometrium
  • Blastocyst buries inside the lining
  • Lining thickens, trophoblast produce fingerlike extensions growing into the lining
68
Q

Hormonal changes during pregnancy

A

Trophoblast cell secrete hCG > hCG maintains corpus luteum > corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogens and progesterone > estrogen and progesterone promote growth, development, and maintenance of uterine wall

69
Q

Amniotic fluid

A

Water environment so that embryo can grow freely, no pressure, protection, keeps temperature stable

70
Q

In fetus, a large amount of ____ bypasses the _____

A

blood; lung

71
Q

Blood in fetal heart

A

1) Oxygenated blood from mother enters right atrium
2) Flows to left atrium via foramen ovale
3) Left ventricle and then ascending aorta
4) Blood sent to brain and heart muscle itself
5) Blood returning to the heart goes into right atrium, right ventricle (here it would be normally sent to lungs to be oxygenated), bypasses lungs and flows through ductus arteriosus into descending aorta
6) Goes back into placenta, where CO2 and waste products are released into mother’s circulatory system

72
Q

Fetal blood

A

Has greater oxygen-carrying capacity than adult blood

73
Q

Umbilical vein

A

Carries nutrient-rich, oxygenated blood from placenta to fetus

74
Q

Ductus arteriosus

A

Conducts some blood from pulmonary trunk to the aorta, bypassing the lungs

75
Q

Free Radical Theory of Aging

A

Hypothesis: Reactive Oxidative Species (ROS) produced during mitochondrial respiration will damage macromolecules, including protein, lipid, and DNA, leading to aging.

76
Q

Homozygous, heterozygous

A

Homozygous: two identical alleles of a particular gene

Heterozygous: two different alleles for a gene

77
Q

Genotype

A

The particular combination of gene variants (alleles) in a person’s genome

78
Q

Phenotype

A

The appearance or health condition of the individual that develops as a result of the ways the genes are expressed

79
Q

___- type alleles produce ____

A

Wild; mutations

80
Q

Incomplete dominance or co-dominance

A
  • Heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive
  • ex: familial hypercholesterolemia
81
Q

Difference in inheritance patterns of X-linked genes between females and males

A

Any gene on the X chromosome of male is expressed in his phenotype, because he has no second allele on a second X to stop this express.

82
Q

Aneuploidy

A
  • Cells missing a chromosome or having an extra chromosome
  • Results from meiotic error called nondisjunction
  • Chromosome fails to separate or no copy at all
83
Q

Trisomy

A

extra chromosome

84
Q

Monosomy

A

missing chromosome

Anatomy And Physiology 2 (2 decks)

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