Test 3 - Leys Flashcards
The major intracellular compartments of an animal
- Peroxisome
- Endosome
- Nucleus
- Lysosome
- Cytosol
- Golgi Apparatus
- Mitochondria
- ER
- Plasma membrane
Vesicles move from compartment to compartment within a cell by ___ ___and ___ ___
Budding off and membrane fusion
Many proteins have signal sequences at their ___ ___ that direct the proteins to cross the membrane. Fewer proteins have ___ ___ ___
Amino terminus
Internal signal sequences
The nucleus is surrounded by a ___ ___ ___ ___; however, ___ ___ allow molecules, including proteins to pass from the cytosol into the nucleus and back
Double lipid membrane bilayer
Nuclear pores
Larger proteins pass through nuclear pores by an:
Active process
Nuclear import receptors bind to ___ ___ ___ found on some nuclear bound proteins and facilitate transport into the nucleus.
Nuclear transport signals
T/F: It generally requires multiple signals to transport proteins from the cytosol into the lumen of the mitochondria.
True
There are multiple protein ____ in the mitochondrial membrane. Each interacts with a specific set of ___
Translocators
Proteins
Transport of a protein into the mitochondria requires ___
Energy
Proteins enter ___ using a mechanism similar to mitochondrial entry
Peroxisomes
Proteins enter ___ using a mechanism similar to mitochondrial entry
Peroxisomes
Proteins travel from the ____ through the Golgi to many sites
ER
A ___ ___ ___(SRP) binds to the signal sequence during translation and directs the ___ ___ to the ER membrane
Signal recognition protein
Nascent peptide
Proteins bound for the mitochondria are translated in the ____ and than transported through the mitochondrial membrane. A process that requires ___
Cytosol
ATP
Proteins that are headed into or through the ER are transported through the ___ ___ during translation. This process _______.
ER Membrane
Doesn’t require any additional energy
Carbohydrate modification of proteins in the ER helps:
Direct them to their ultimate location.
The “default pathway” if there are no other signals directing the protein to other locations, is to:
Send the protein to the cell surface
In regulated secretory pathway, cells store proteins in ___ ___ until they are signaled to release them from the cell by fusion of:
Secretory vesicles
The vesicles with the cellular membrane
Several factors contribute to the state of nutrition including
- Appetite
- Energy expenditure
- Genotype
- Digestion
- Metabolism
- Availability of food
- Customs and presence of disease.
___, ____, and ____ are important regulators of food intake.
Leptin, Ghrelin, and Insulin
Leptin circulates, in the body, at levels proportional to __ __
Body fat
___ signals the brain that the body has had enough to eat, or satiety.
Leptin
Adipose tissue produces ___ that regulate metabolic processes to meet the body’s needs
Adipokines
AMP and AMP/ATP regulate ___ ___ ___ (AMPK) that senses cellular energy levels.
AMP-activated kinase
AMPK regulates rate-limiting enzymes in energy ___ and ____ pathways.
Producing and using
High levels of ___ activity inhibit energy-utilizing pathways and stimulate energy generating pathways.
AMPK
Increased ___ increases appetite
Ghrelin
Ghrelin favors accumulation of lipids in the ___ ___ ___
Visceral fatty tissue
Estimated daily protein requirements and calories changes with ___ and ___. .
Age and sex
The ideal amount of calorie intake in a day is equal to:
The calorie utilization for that day
Recommended daily allowance (RDA) for a nutrient is a value that is adequate for the _____.
Great majority of individuals
The estimated average requirement (EAR) reflects amount that is adequate for _______
Half of the population
Different nutrients have different energy content. ___ has the highest energy content per weight. ____ has a high-energy content.
Fat
Alcohol
Increases in obesity are correlated with an increase in:
The use of high fructose corn syrup
High fructose corn syrup is made by breaking down cornstarch into ___ using ___ followed by conversion to fructose with ___ ___.
Glucose
Amylase
Glucose isomerase
Potential health issues associated with consumption of high fructose corn syrup:
- Mercury exposure
- Hypertension
- Elevated cholesterol
- Long-term liver damage
- Increased risk of diabetes
- Weight gain and obesity.
Protein-calorie malnutrition causes a number of health problems including:
- Decreased protein synthesis and glucose transport
- Fatty liver
- Liver necrosis and fibrosis
- Depression
- Hypothermia
- Compromised immune function and wound healing
- Decreased cardiac and renal function
- Loss of muscle.
Obesity is associated with an increased risk for several conditions including:
- Type 2 diabetes
- Hypertension and stroke
- Dyslipidemia
- Gall stones
- Respiratory disorders
- Musculoskeletal disorders
- Several cancers including breast, endometrial, ovarian, gall bladder and colon.
What is the difference in the structures of cis and trans fatty acids
Cis has the R groups on the same side. Trans has them on opposite sides
___ ___ increase levels of LDL cholesterol (bad cholesterol).
Saturated fats
__ ___ increase levels of LDL and also lower levels of HDL (good cholesterol); thus increasing the risk of coronary heart disease.
Trans fats
Drug metabolism can take place anywhere in the body (Plasma, kidney, lung, gut wall) but ____ is prime site.
Liver
There are three potential outcomes of drug metabolism:
- Increase in drug hydrophilicity and ability to be excreted (hepatic)
- Metabolic products are less pharmacologically active than the substrate drug
- Inactive prodrugs converted to
their active forms (hepatic)
There are several mechanisms of Drug Resistance including:
- Decreased permeability
- Alteration of the target site for the drug
- Enzymatic inactivation of the drug
- Active transport of the drug out of the cell
- Amplification of the gene coding for the target of the drug.
An increase in DNA repair activity can decrease ____
Effectiveness of drugs that target DNA.
Multidrug resistant results from an increase in the amount of ___ ___ that can pump many different drugs out of the cell.
Transporter proteins
4 essential processes needed to develop from a single cell into a multicellular organism:
- Cell proliferation
- Cell specialization
- Cell interaction
- Cell movement
Cell fates
What the final cell type of cell will become
Cell determination
Process by which portions of the genome are selected for expression.
Restricts cell fate
Example of developmental genes from different organisms
Mutation in the kit gene in humans and mice
___ ___ direct regions (segments) to differentiate into their final forms.
Homeotic genes
Genes can have complex expression patterns by having a series of ___ ___ directing transcription in different regions of the organism.
Control regions
Homeotic genes are arrayed on the chromosome in the same order as they are expressed in __ ___ and in the same order in ___ ___ and humans
Developing embryos
Fruit flies
Stages of the cell cycle
- Growth (G)
- Synthesis (S)
- Mitosis (M)
What happens at G1 in the cell cycle?
Cellular contents, excluding the chromosomes are duplicated
What happens at S in the cell cycle?
Each of the 46 chromosomes is duplicated by the cell
What happens at G2 in the cell cycle?
The cell “double checks” the duplicated chromosomes for error, making any needed repairs
Protooncogenes code for:
Proteins that help regulate cell growth
An oncogene can transform a cell into a ___ ___
Tumor cell
A tumor suppressor gene protects a cell from:
One step on the path to cancer.
What are the 3 checkpoints in the cell cycle:
- G1 (favorable environment?)
- G2 (favorable environment? DNA replicated?)
- Metaphase (chromosomes attached to spindle?)
General pathway for growth factor signaling.
- Growth factor + Receptor
- Receptor oligomerization
- Receptor PTK Activation
- Phosphorylation of PTK moiety
- Docking site forms
- Recruit signaling enzyme
- Activation
3 basic cancers found in humans
- Carcinoma (Epithelial)
- Sarcoma (Connective/Muscle)
- Leukemia (Hemopoietic)
Which cancer causing mutants are dominant and which are recessive?
Protooncogenes and oncogenes are dominant. Tumor suppressor is recessive
Signs/Symptoms of oral cancer
- White/Red patches
- Mouth sore that doesn’t heal
- Bleeding
- Loose teeth
- Painful swallowing
- Lump in neck
- Earache
Risk factors for oral cancer
- Smoking/Tobacco use
- Heavy alcohol use
- HPV
- Chronic irritation
- Immunosuppressants
- Poor dental/oral hygiene
