Test 3 - Ethology Flashcards
why do vets need to understand animal behaviour? (4)
- Promote safe and humane handling
- To influence behaviour in ways that are beneficial to humans (e.g., to improve productivity or efficiencies; drug detection)
- To resolve behaviour disorders (e.g., to support the human-animal bond – by managing behavioural health)
- To help us assess the well-being of animals (important for assessing cases and in deciding how to house and care for animals more generally)
what does careful assessment and recording of behaviour require? (4)
- Clear operational definitions
- Appropriate sampling techniques
- Appropriate observational methods
- Supporting validation of measures (e.g., pain)
what is an operational definition
-precise description of the physical movements (and in some cases their timing), which must be met before the observer records that a behaviour has occurred.
four common measures of behaviour
-latency
-frequency
-duration
-intensity
what is latency
duration of time from some specified event, to the onset of the first occurrence of the behaviour of interest
what is frequency? units?
is the number of occurrences of the behaviour of interest, per unit time
* It is not a count measure - it is a measure of the rate of the occurrence
what is duration
is the amount of time for which a single occurrence of the behaviour pattern of interest lasts
what is intensity
is the the degree or amount of strength or force that something has
what are two broad types of behaviour patterns? define, measure of interest
- Events: distinct actions of relatively short duration that can be approximated as discrete points in time (e.g. a cough, a kick, a bite)
* Number of events is the common measure of interest - States: activities which occupy prolonged periods of time (e.g. walking, standing, lying)
* Duration of states is the common measure of interest
three behaviour sampling techniques
- Continuous sampling: Full and complete recording of the events and states of subjects during a complete period of time of interest.
- Interval sampling: Full and complete recording of the events and states of subjects during a specified period of time, at a regular interval (e.g., for 2 min, every 10 min).
- Instantaneous sampling: The behaviour state of each subject is noted at the exact instant of a pre-
determined, at a regular interval (e.g., every 10 min)
example of use of automated recording of behaviour
use of 3D accelerometers to record general activity (lying, standing)
use of load cells with electronic animal ID systems to recording feeding behaviour
three ways we can assess pain
-Estimate potential using human self-report data
-Physiological measures
-Behavioural measures
three classes of pain behaviour we can use to assess, examples
- Animals exhibiting choice/preference to avoid pain
->Avoiding painful stimulus, self-medication with analgesics - Change in frequency or magnitude of normal behaviours
-> Changes in general activity, e.g., reduced feeding, drinking* - Pain-specific behaviours
-> Postural changes, increased attention to/guarding of painful
area, changes in vocalizations, abnormal reaction to palpation
-> Specific responses to certain types of pain such as writhing with
visceral pain, ear flicking following dehorning
what makes a good pain measure; experimental vs clinical
Experimental
▫ Behaviours can be rare and retrospective
differentiate groups of animals
assessment over extended period without need to modify animal treatment
Clinical
▫ Behaviours must occur regularly and be sensitive enough to identify and estimate pain in individuals in real time
Accurate assessment in individuals
Relatively quick
what is learning?
what does appropriate training method depend on?
Specific experiences result in a
change in response to a given
situation
Appropriate training method
depends on the situation and
the individual animal
What can we do with learning and
training? (4)
-Increase or decrease particular
behaviours
-Improve “manners” and self control
-Enrichment and confidence building
-Change the affective state of an animal in response to a particular situation
two examples of simple learning
habituation, sensitization
what is habituation
Repeated exposure to the stimulus with no effect (neutral) results in a decrease in response
what relationship does classical conditioning strengthen
- Strengthen relationship between two stimuli
what relationship does operant conditioning strengthen
- Strengthen relationship between a behaviour and the consequence of the behaviour
5 key points for counter conditioning
- Consistency is key – remove triggers outside training
- Reward stimulus > aversive stimulus
- Gradually build up the procedure while keeping fear/arousal sub-threshold
- Separate components where possible
- Repetition, repetition, repetition
what approach do you take if you want to decrease a behaviour and remove something? example
negative punishment - remove attention if they jump
problems with positive punishment
-doesnt tell the animal the correct the behaviour
-Must occur immediately after the behaviour and happen every time
what are problems with aversives
-Can cause physical and mental harm
-Breakdown of the human- animal bond -> Impacts learning ability!
evidence of potential aggression issues (3)
- Case series of 5 serious dog attacks on humans that appear to be linked to electronic containment systems (Polsky, 2000)
- Confrontational training methods were reported to elicit aggressive
responses in many dogs prior to a behaviour consult (Herron et al.,
2009) - Use of physical punishment is associated with increases in various
forms of aggression in dogs (Hsu & Sun, 2010), and human-directed
aggression specifically (Casey et al., 2014)
what does extinction mean in the context of behaviour
Break the association between behaviour and reward by removing the reward
Don’t inadvertently reward!
three key factors that affect learning
- Timing of reinforcement
- Strength of reinforcement
- Schedule of reinforcement
what is imprinting ? types
Learning at particular developmental stages (sensitive periods) that is rapid and independent of behavioural consequences
sexual and filial
what is neophobia
Fear/avoidance of novel items
Especially food
- Animals often try new items in small amounts
- If palatability and energy/nutrition high, negative effects low animal likely to return
what is learned taste aversion
-Foods that make an animal ill will be avoided in the future
-Based on classical conditioning, does not require conscious awareness
* One-trial learning
* Duration between intake and illness can be delayed
* Taste/smell most effective sensory cues in mammals
* In birds, visual stimuli effective
what can cause suppression of typical behaviours
-Physiological or psychological suppression of typical behaviours by external threat/ stress/ illness
-Adaptive changes in behaviour to conserve resources and promote survival and/or reproduction
what are vacuum activities
- Fixed actions performed in the
absence of the normal eliciting
stimulus
can be linked to welfare
what are displacement activities
- Irrelevant behaviours
performed during periods of
motivational conflict or stress
can be linked to welfare
three defining criteria for abnormal behaviours
- ‘Away from the norm’ or statistically rare, based on naturalistic conditions -> But with domesticated species, not all
statistically rare behaviours are abnormal, and not all common behaviours are normal - Generally lacking any clear or apparent function
- Often pathological, either causing harm or resulting from neurological damage
commonly suggested abnormal behaviour examples
Cannibalism & Infanticide
- But not necessarily maladaptive…
‘Abnormal’ aggression
- Sometimes, but what level or type should be considered maladaptive?
Pica & Polydipsia
- But not necessarily maladaptive…
Abnormal repetitive behaviours
what are abnormal repetitive behaviours
ARBs - behaviour patterns that are
inappropriate, repeated and
unvarying in either motor pattern or
goal
subtypes of ARBs, definitions and examples
- Stereotypic behaviours
* repetitive, unvarying and with no apparent goal or function
* E.g. Route tracing, bar-biting - Impulsive/Compulsive behaviours
* repetition of an inappropriate goal with variable flexible goal-directed behavior
* E.g., barbering in mice
what causes ARBs?
Stress and frustrated motivations can lead to:
* Intention movements
-Pacing with confinement
* Redirected movements
-Cross-suckling in calves
* Vacuum activities
-Sham dustbathing in chickens
* Displacement activities
-Preening during conflict in chickens
These are not ARBs, but when
repeated they might develop into
them
what is an example of frustrated motivation
Repetitive digging in laboratory gerbils
* Providing sand to dig did not affect
development
* But a plaster cast of a burrow system had a dramatic effect!
* Suggests frustrated motivation to
have a burrow, not to dig
Other tests of ethological
hypotheses for ARBs (4)
- Bar-mouthing in lab mice is derived from attempts to escape
- Feather-plucking in hens is derived from motivations to forage
- Object-sucking by calves is derived from motivations to suckle
- Pacing in carnivores is derived from motivations to range
ARBs associated with brain alterations
ARBs also found with:
* autism spectrum disorders, tourettes, obsessive compulsive disorders in humans
* Animal models where brain damage induced via lesions or drug stimulation
All associated with alterations to basal ganglia and connections to cortex
* Decision center for action
In humans, associated with reduced behavioural control - inability to suppress inappropriate behaviours
* Poor abilities to shift responses/goals
* Impulsive responding
how to prevent ARBs with optimal conditions (5)
- Adequate space
- Environmental enrichment to
reduce boredom and frustration - Appropriate social contact
- Reducing aversive conditions,
providing coping strategies - Genetic selection
treatment of ARBs; what should it focus on, will removal always lead to improvement?
Removing stress/frustration may not result in improvements
* Improvements depend on severity and how long it has been ongoing
* Possibility of permanent brain pathology
Treatment should focus on reducing stress and frustration, encouraging natural behaviours
* Environmental and social enrichment
* Reducing aversive conditions
* Pharmacological treatment
questions to ask when we see ARBs? (4)
How long have they been ongoing?
How much of the time budget is spent on ARBs?
Is there underlying pathology?
Is the ARB causing damage?
causation vs ontogeny
- Causation: Proximate mechanisms that stimulate behaviour, including physiology
- Ontogeny: Behavioural development, learning and changes in
Why is it uncommon to treat
behaviour problems in food animals? (5)
- Food animals often managed at the group level
- We lack knowledge about causal factors*
- Lower priority vs other matters of concern, which may have more tangible impact on productivity
- Animal scientists c/should do a better job capturing the impact of welfare on profitability
- Impact of behaviour problems on animal welfare is only more recently of interest in animal ag
animal care and welfare in a broad context (3 whats)
- What is: Facts (animal health & welfare science)
- What must be: Requirements (animal protection laws, codes of practice, and practical welfare
assessment) - What ought to be: Ethical perspectives
what is a social license to operate (SLO)? what is animal ags SLO impacted by?
- “The ongoing acceptance of an industry’s standard business practices or operating procedures by its employees, stakeholders, and the general public”
- Animal ag’s SLO is greatly impacted today by “welfare” (in its broadest sense): by what we do to the animals (how we care for them) but also by the public’s perspective on what is important
three behaviour problems in beef cattle
- Problem behaviour during handling
- Mis-mothering, and maternal aggression
- Buller-steer syndrome
changes to normal beef cattle behaviour; vigilance, maternal, reproductive and feeding behaviours
- Vigilance behaviour (reduced scanning of the environment for
predatory threats): 6,000 to 9,000 years of artificial selection for docility / reduced fear of humans - Maternal behaviour: Some selection against cows that are aggressive towards humans after calving
- Reproductive behaviour: Seasonal breeding replaced by ability to breed year-round. Mostly natural breeding.
- Feeding behaviour: Diet during the feedlot finishing phase affects natural feeding behaviour, especially duration
three problem behaviours during handling in beef cattle
- Balking (stopping - refusing to move forward)
* Shadows and stark transitions in flooring
* Entering / moving through handling chutes - Rearing in the chute, attempts to escape
- Charging the handler
significance of behaviour issues during handling of beef cattle (5)
- Risk of injury to the cattle (slips, falls, but especially bruising on market-weight animals $)
- Increases handling time, which may be considered by some to be inefficient
- Risk of injury to handlers (farmers, vets)
- Welfare implications: cattle (e.g., fear, pain, “distress”)
- Welfare implications: humans (e.g., frustration, negative reciprocal effects: problem behaviour during
handling leading to rougher handling)
prevention and treatment for behaviour problems during handling in beef cattle
Habituate cattle to humans, and good handling
Follow natural behaviour principles:
* Flight zone (compare beef vs dairy cattle)
* Point of balance
* Following behaviour
Habituate cattle to the facilities (free access)
Provide good facilities:
* Well-lit
* Limit novel stimuli
move cattle in small groups
keep quiet as much as possible during handling
what happens during mismothering and maternal aggression (2)
- Mis-mothering
* Rejecting their newborn calf
* Calf “stealing” by cows close to giving birth - Aggression towards humans
significance of mismothering and maternal aggression
- Mis-mothering
* Inefficient: Time and labour to care for orphaned calves and/or to try and fix the problem
* Risk to future calf health: affects the timely consumption of colostrum
* Risk of injury to the newborn calf if dam is aggressive - Aggression towards humans
* Risk of injury to farmers - and veterinarians
prevention and treatments for mismothering (5)
- Enough space for cows to spread out / seek isolation at calving
- Avoid disturbing close-up cows (e.g., video monitoring), especially primiparous cows (greater risk for mis-mothering – why?)
- Dystocia cases and C-section deliveries have a higher prevalence of calf rejections, for different reasons:
-Pain and stress of dystocia and / or intervention
-Time shift of hormonal profile for normal maternal behaviour (delays in the progression of delivery)
-Possible interference of drugs administered for surgery - Facilitate licking the newborn to trigger normal maternal behaviour (e.g., smear birth fluids on the dam’s nose / tongue, putting feed on the calf)
- Work to get the calf to nurse; Release of oxytocin during milk let-down may facilitate bonding. Pen the pair together and restraint the cow, if necessary for the calf to suckle a few times/day
- “Stealing” cows need to be separated from the main calving group to avoid interference
prevention and treatment for maternal aggression (3)
- Protect yourself at all times around new momma cows (knowing your escape route is the best defense)
- Encourage producers to use protective barriers when handling / processing newborn calves
- Culling aggressive cows
what is bull steer syndrome
- Repeated mounting of an individual animal (the “buller”) in feedlots by one or more penmates (“riders”)
- Muddy flanks, tail-head, and / or hair loss on these areas
significance of bull steer syndrome (4)
- Efficiency RE time and labour to intervene, remove and examine buller, treat them (if necessary), return after recovery
- Possible injury or even death of the buller
- Costs RE treatment costs, negative impact on ADG
- Negative welfare implications: bullers are persistently pursued, attempt to avoid mounting (aversive), but often cannot, fatigue/exhaustion, pain
prevention and treatment of bull steer syndrome (3)
- Avoid large groups; prevalence is higher in feedlot pens of > 300 animals
- Remove buller from the home pen for recovery, however, currently no science-based guidelines about how long is required for recovery (very difficult to study in the field)
- Some repeat bullers can learn to effectively use hiding structures / anti-mounting bars
painful routine procedures in cattle; issues and rationale
Issue: Dehorning, castration, dehorning and branding all cause pain - both acute and after the procedure
Rationale
* Dehorning reduces carcass bruising, and injuries to cattle, farmers, and veterinarians
* Castration reduces aggression between unfamiliar males, and DFD / dark cutter meat quality problems
* Branding provides permanent herd-level ownership identification (only practiced in western Canada)
how to address pain during procedures based on the code requirements
- Castrate as young as possible, pain mitigation required for calves > 6 mo
- Dehorn as young as possible, pain mitigation required if horn bud has implanted
- Canadian Beef Quality Audit results
suggest a steady increase in the use of polled genetics in the purebred sector of the industry
issue and rationale with weaning stress
ISSUE
-Weaning imposed when calf is 6 to 8 months old.
-Conventional method is to impose remote physical separation of the cow and calf (e.g. transport calves to
an auction market)
-Behaviour response suggests significant distress for up to 4 days (increased vocalizing and walking, reduced eating, and resting / lying down)
RATIONALE
Allows for the specialized feeding and finishing process
Dams have a recovery period before giving birth to the next calf
how to address weaning stress
- Natural weaning (practiced by some, but unlikely to be widely adopted)
- Fenceline weaning
- Two-stage weaning
what is two stage/quiet weaning
- Nursing prevented by a nose-flap (stage 1)
- Pairs are separated 4 to 7 days later (stage 2)
issues with long distance transportation in cattle
Weaned cattle could be without feed, water or rest for up to 36 h
why are there differences in pet owners expectations and willingness to treat?
Deal-breakers for some are not for others
* Personality
* Time availability
* Children
* Mobility
Deal-breakers can change with life stage
Animals can develop new deal-breakers with changes in circumstance
common behaviour issues we will see in practice
- Treatment and nail trim issues
- Puppy and kitten consults with behaviour questions
- House-soiling in cats
- Separation anxiety and noise phobia in dogs
- Fear or aggression towards other animals or people
- Cognitive dysfunction
4 different approaches to training that have varying opinions
- Reward-based training
- Aversive training
- Balanced training
- Dominance-based training (dogs)
what is dominance
Dominance describes the relationship between two individuals
* Related to priority of access to critical resources (e.g., food, mates, shelter)
* Developed and maintained by agonistic encounters
dominance based explanations (3)
- Your dog urinates in the house to show you that she owns the “territory”
- Dogs pull on leash so they can get out in front and be in charge of you and the walk
- Dogs get on the furniture and/or beds to show that they rule the household
prevention and treatment of tongue rolling in dairy cows
- High forage diet
- Grazing
three forms of dominance relationships
-linear
-despotism
-triangular
what is non nutritive sucking by calves
Sucking (creation of at least a partial vacuum) on pen fixtures or body parts of other calves - objects that
provide no apparent nutritive reinforcement
Body parts targeted are the muzzle, ears, navel, inguinal area (e.g., teats or scrotum)
prevention and treatment of non nutritive sucking by calves
Feed calves to appetite - hunger plays some role
Satisfying the motivation to suck after milk feeding
* Natural feeding methods – sucking is important (e.g., teat buckets, automated milk-feeding systems, use of nurse cows)
* Mimic the natural feeding duration (~10 min)
* Provide “blind” / “dummy” teats with non-perforated tips for calves to suck on after the meal to avoid cross-sucking
* Provide a “distraction” (e.g., feed hay after milk meal)
significance of problems with lying behaviour in dairy cows
- A fundamental behavioural need for lying (12 to 13h/d for lactating cows, housed indoors)
- Welfare implications (e.g., fatigue, perhaps also pain – from standing on concrete flooring)
- Extreme durations associated with health problems (e.g., long duration, severe lameness) and associated with reduced milk production
- Duration of lying can be impacted by the inability to change position easily (without hitting a wall, or stall
divider)
prevention and treatment for problems with lying behaviour in dairy cows
- Stall dimensions appropriate to modern cow size
- Expose calves to freestalls from a young age so they become accustomed to using them
- Stocking density code Requirement: ≤ 120%, i.e. 120
cows: 100 stalls (110:100 in 2027, 100:100 in 2031) - Innovation / testing stall designs
pain caused by routine practices in dairy; issue and rationale
Issue:
-Virtually all dairy breeds have horns, and all methods of removal cause acute and post-operative pain
-Tail-docking is the removal of the tail, often above the rear-udder attachment – an alteration from nature
Rationale:
* Dehorning
* Prevent injuries to handlers and each other
* Reduce input costs as animals with horns require more space
* Tail-docking
* Improve milker comfort
* Perceived improvement cow cleanliness
issue and rationale for delayed culling/euthanasia in dairy
Issue:
-Cases of downed dairy cows on farms and at auction markets suggest room for improvement (most often these are dairy cows, not beef cows)
Rationale:
* Hoping for recovery of the animal
* The ethic / duty of care (euthanasia seen as failure?)
* Loss of income and cost - for animals killed on farm
* Culture of not wanting to be wasteful
* Uncertain understanding of how poor health influences capacity to withstand stress of transport and handling which occurs at culling
* Poor understanding (by all) of what happens to cull cows after leaving the home farm
how to do in stall lameness scoring
- Observe cows in their home stall
- If lying, make them stand but wait 5 min before scoring
- Watch the cow for 30 s, from behind (10 s from their right, 10 s from directly behind, 10 s from their left)
- Assess the presence of 4 control points
- If any 2 are present, a closer examination of the limbs is indicated
what are horses sensitive to that they move away from?
Horses are sensitive to pressure and move away from it, which has laid the foundation for negative reinforcement training
control points to assess on each cow for lameness (4)
- WEIGHT SHIFTING from side-to-side, between the left and right feet (front feet or back feet)
- UNEVEN WEIGHT BEARING; repeated resting of one limb more than the other, opposite leg via a leg lift
- STANDING ON THE STALL EDGE: to take the weight off affected claw
- UNEVEN MOVEMENT when the cow is moved laterally, by the assessor, the animal shifts position in an uneven, irregular way
how can hock injuries in dairy cows appear
Attributes of an injury can include:
* Swelling / inflammation?
* Hair loss?
* Lesion(s) / broken skin?
* Discharge?
* Painful to palpation?
5 domains in horses that affect welfare status
-nutrition
-physical environment
-health
-behavioural interaction
-mental/affective state
treatment of cribbing in horses
- Crib collars
- Electrifying surfaces and e-collars
- Bitter substances
- Rings
- Surgery; modified Forssell’s procedure
Medication
* SSRIs/TCAs
* Naloxone
* NMDA receptor antagonist
* Omeprazol
horse industry welfare concerns (11)
- Transportation and slaughter; Slaughter ban in US has led to longer transport times for horses sent to Canada or Mexico, Shipping of live horses overseas for slaughter
- End of life decisions
- PMSG
- Ejiao
- Lack of adequate turnout
- Horse rescues
- Obesity/metabolic disease
- Identifying and treating OA
- Doping
- Tight nosebands
- Fireworks
steps in case approach for behaviour issues in horses
- Signalment
- Age at onset of the problem
- Duration of the problem
- Description of the actual behavior – VIDEO!
- Frequency of the behaviour (hourly, daily, weekly, monthly)
- Duration of an average episode (seconds, minutes, hours)
- Any change in the pattern, frequency, intensity, or duration of episodes
- Learning, emancipation
- Any corrective measures tried and the response
- Typical 24-hour schedule for the horse and owner, as well as any day-to-day variability
- Genetics
- Environment and housing
- Anything else the owner thinks is relevant
when there is a behaviour issue in horses, what medical components do you need to rule out?
Pain
* Musculoskeletal
* Feet
* Gastric ulceration, colic
* Teeth
* Vaginitis
Hormonal
* Estrus behaviour
* Cushings
Neurologic
* EPM
* Neuralgia
Tack/equipment
PE, CBC/chem, fecal, radiograph
4 Ms of treatment of behaviour issues in horses
- Medical
- Management
->Changing the environment to prevent triggering of the behaviour
->Learning body language and avoid ALL situations where problems have occurred in the past. - Behaviour Modification
->Avoid ALL punishment and reward ALL desired behaviors
->Teaching coping strategies and alternative behaviours - Medications
->Medications, supplements used to decrease anxiety or fear and enable behavior modification to be implemented
enrichment for horses
FREEDOM, FORAGE, FRIENDS
* Providing turnout
* Foraging opportunity
* Social opportunity
using operant conditioning in horses; negative and positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
* Traditional horse training
* Fine line -> abuse -> habituation/learned helplessness
* Timing is everything
Positive reinforcement
* Reinforcement in the eye of the beholder
* Most horses do not find, talking, petting, slapping as reinforcing
* Clicker training- timing of reinforcement
R+ creates motivated and exploratory learners
Often training a new or alternative behaviour to bypass a previously
learned behaviour is easier than trying to fix a problem behaviour
how can you use positive reinforcement to shape behaviours in horses
Use positive reinforcement to shape behaviours
* Mounting block
* Trailering
* Shoeing
* In the saddle
Shaping is rewarding the components of a more complicated behaviour to build up to the full repertoir
types of veal calves
- Milk-fed to 5 months (200 kg): QC, NY
- Grain-fed to 7 months age (325 kg): ON
overview of veal cattle (8)
- Age they are killed is of concern to some (mainly an ethical matter more than one to do with welfare)
- Housed indoors
- Kept individually during milk feeding phase
- Very close confinement
- Required to be in group housing no later than 8 weeks of age
- Still relatively high stocking densities
- Slatted flooring so feces falls through
- Slats are uncomfortable and cause slipping
what are beef on dairy cross calves
Many dairy farms now breed some of their cows using beef semen. Often Angus semen. Used on cows of lower genetic value the farmer does not want replacement heifers from
what are dairy beef
Full-blood Holstein males raised and finished to the standard of regular beef cattle (but a longer time on
feed)
general behaviour of red jungle fowl
Red jungle fowl nest, forage and spend the majority of daylight
hours on the ground, flying up to
roost in trees, mainly at at night, in
order to avoid predation
improvements for laying hens vs broilers as a result of artificial selection
Laying Hens
-More eggs >320/year
-Greater efficiency Feed:Egg
Broilers
-Fast growth rates
-Huge appetites
-Large breasts and legs
what are laying hen efficiencies realized through
- Efficiencies realized through, confinement housing, nutrition, as well as genetic selection
are hens laying more/less eggs now and eating more/less feed compared to back in 1960? more/less mortality
laying more eggs and eating less kg of feed per kg of eggs
less mortality
nesting in modern day hens
- Modern hen has retained ‘urge’ to nest
- Most hens prefer to lay in an enclosed space
- Most hens will perform a variety of ‘costly’ tasks to get to the nest box
- Push through heavy doors
−Squeeze through narrow gaps
−Pass by a dominant hen
effects of domestication on behaviour of laying hens
- Most wild-type behaviors are retained
- Changes are quantitative rather than qualitative
- Thresholds may be altered
- Reduced fear, increased sociability, reduced anti-predator response
four important behaviours for hens
- Nesting
- Perching
- Dust bathing
- Foraging
-Motivation of hens for these specific behaviors and the
consequences of preventing them have been researched extensively
what is nesting stimulated by
ovulation
reasons for perching in laying hens
- Hens perch in high places to avoid predators
- Hens prefer to rest/roost on perches
- Some data that hens work for access to perch
- It is well established that perching increases
the strength of leg bones
what is dust bathing evolved for
- On litter, hens dust bathe every 2-3 days
- Evolved for parasite removal, feather condition
- Hens ‘sham’ dust bathe on wire floors
- Hens dustbathe more quickly and for a longer period of time after going without litter
- ‘Build-up’ of motivation
pros and cons of conventional cages
- Promote good health and hygiene
- But space and behavior are greatly
restricted - And lack of exercise leads to
weaker bones
pros of furnished cases
- Include nest area, perches, scratch mat
- Provide the hygiene and health benefits of conventional cages
- Production comparable to conventional cages
- Perches and more space increase bone strength
- Furnishings intended to support behavior patterns important to hens
pros and cons of non cage systems
- Provide more space and opportunities to engage in a full range of behavior
- But can also may increase problems such as feather pecking and cannibalism
- Behavioural management is critical for making these systems work
what makes a suitable pet? (3)
- No appreciable risk of harm to
the community or the environment - Adequately meet the needs of the species within captivity
- Suitable interactions with humans to ensure continued commitment
what happens in sensitive periods in companion animals? when do they occur?
Attachments and familiarity develop relatively easily and rapidly
* Starts with social and environmental exploration
* Once closed, new things are treated with suspicion, slower process
- Puppies – 3 to 16 weeks
- Kittens – 2 to 9 weeks
canine behaviour development; socialization
Socialization – 3 to 12(-16) weeks
* Maturation of motor skills and nervous system
* Imprinting – dog identification and learning social limits
* 5-8 weeks optimum for socialization
* 8-14 weeks stranger danger develops, also parallel fear of objects
canine behaviour development; neonatal and transition periods
Neonatal – first 2 weeks
* Mainly sleeping and nursing, seeking tactile contact
Transition – 2 – 3 weeks
* eyes and ears open, become mobile, start interactions, eating solid foods
canine behaviour development; juvenile period
- Reinforcement of socialization and environmental complexity necessary
feline behaviour development; neonatal and transitional
Neonatal – first week
* Eating, sleep, basic interaction with mother and littermates
Transitional – second week
* Begins adult forms of eating and locomotion, emergence of social behaviours
feline behaviour development; socialization
Socialization – 2 to 7(-9) weeks
* Formation of social bonds/familiarity
what happens when there is incomplete socialization of dogs
Complete isolation from humans
* Withdrawal from humans starting after 5 weeks
* Intractable fear of humans after 14 weeks
Hand-rearing with isolation from other dogs
* After 12 weeks, passive with peers leading to later aggression
* Altered interactions with humans
fear related issues (3)
-Reduced welfare
-Related behaviour problems
* E.g., aggression, noise phobia,
house-soiling
-Consequences of behaviour problems and reduced bonding with pet
approach to further socialization for well- vs poorly socialized animals
For well-socialized animals
* Socialization should continue throughout the life of the animal
For poorly socialized animals
* Most won’t have complete deprivation, so some base to build on
* Will take longer with more effort, lack of generalization
* Particularly important for experiences to be positive
Benefits of early exposure to
veterinary environments and handling
Well-socialized pets will be easier to handle for both the owner and veterinary staff
* More complete physical exams
* More accurate diagnostics with
reduced stress
* Easier to deliver treatments and
increased client compliance
* Owner more likely to bring pet to
the vet
Managing disease risks and
safety concerns - Vaccinations and socialization
Wait 1 week after first vaccination for titre to build
* Prior to this, socialize but stick to safe activities
* After this, start moderately safe activities
* Following complete series, expand to more ‘risky’ activities
Managing disease risks and
safety concerns - after Vaccinations
Choose safe dogs for socialization
* Fully vaccinated adults that play gently
* Healthy puppies with at least first
vaccination
Choose safe environments
* Puppy classes with appropriate cleaning and vaccination requirements
* Low traffic areas where potentially
unsafe dogs can be avoided
* Avoid the dog park and other busy
areas where control is limited
considerations for choosing a puppy class
Encourage owners to ask lots of
questions
* All puppies should have at least first
vaccination
* Clean and free of potential dangers
* Positive-reinforcement based methods
* Good content; Puppy socialization opportunities, Basic obedience and house-training, Prevention of common behaviour problems
* Good rapport with instructors
* AVSAB handout on finding a traine
proper methods for socialization
Make experiences positive for the puppy or kitten
* Gradual, passive exposure
* Limit the number of stimuli at one time
* Pay attention for signs of fear
* Appropriate rest and down time
* Pair exposure with good things
like food and attention
fear behaviour vs avoidance behaviour vs engaged behaviour in kittens
Fear behaviour
* Hissing, open mouth
* Piloerection
* Arched posture
* Ears and whiskers back
* Pupil dilation
Avoidance behaviour
* Struggling or moving away
* Refusing treats
Engaged behaviour
* Ears, whiskers and posture forward
fear vs avoidance behaviour in a puppy
Fear behaviour
* Arched posture
* Ears back
* Tail tucked
* Freezing and barking
* Subtle behaviours like lip licking, paw lifting, panting, yawning and flinching
Avoidance behaviour
* Struggling or moving away
* Refusing treats
how to respond if puppy is showing signs of fear
- Don’t coddle and immediately rescue, but be kind and remove if they escalate
- Encourage approach using vocal cues and gestures, and luring them with treats and toys
- Use desensitization and counter-conditioning for persistent fears
when should clients receive help for fear behaviours in dogs
Exaggerated, persistent, or inappropriate fear given the context
Signs of emerging aggression
* Growling, lip-lifting, inhibited or actual bites in puppies
* Outside of the context of play
* Persistent defensive behaviours in kittens
Discuss with client whether behaviour warrants assistance from a trainer versus a veterinary behaviourist
5 AAFP guidelines on environmental needs for cats
- Provide a safe place
- Provide multiple and separated key environmental resources
- Provide opportunity for play and predatory behaviour
- Provide positive, consistent, and predictable human– cat social interaction
- Provide an environment that respects the importance of the cat’s sense of smell
general management strategies for dealin with unruly behaviour
- Be aware of arousal levels – stop play when puppy/kitten gets too excited
- Interrupt and redirect to an appropriate outlet (e.g., enrichment!)
- Negative punishment to reduce the
behaviour
physical and behavioural features of dog domestication
physical; smaller size, shorter muzzle, domed head, larger eyes, smaller teeth, floppy ears
behaviour; increased care soliciting behaviours such as begging, face licking, reduced fear, curiosity, playfulness, reduced territoriality, increased social contact
other; earlier sexual maturity, relaxed estrous cycles, better social cognitive skills
dog feeding behaviour
facultative carnivores but will consume other foods
large infrequent meals
dog vision, hearing, taste, touch, olfaction
vision; field varies with breed, focal ability likely reduced, some colour vision
hearing; range depends on age and breed, ear tile to rotate and capture sounds
taste; less senstitive than humans, less sensitive to salt, bitter receptors are at back of the tongue, receptors for water at tip of tongue
touch; specialized vibrissae at eye, cheek, muzzle, chin and neck important for preventng collisions and exploration
olfaction; highly sensitive in comparison to humans
feces marking, urine marking and pheromones as canine olfactory communication
feces marking; anal sac secretions generally only at time of defecation, marking not standard in dogs
urine marking; more common in males, not always affected by neutering, may indicate territory or general communication
pheromones; not detectable by humans, roles in sexual and maternal behaviour, dog appeasing pheromone potentially useful for treatment of stress and anxiety
cat feeding behaviour
obligate carnivores
multiple small frequent meals per day
predation based object play behaviour
cat vision, hearing, taste, touch, olfaction
vision; eyes adapted for night hunting. large visual field with large area of retinal activation, good ability to detect movement, colour blind
hearing; broad range and very sensitive, heightened for prey location, use of pinna for capture
taste; no receptors for sweet but bitter is intact
olfaction; more developed than humans, used for communication rather than tracking
touch; vibrissae key to determining location in space and of objects, sensitive paws
feces marking, urine marking and pheromones as feline olfactory communication
feces marking; generally buried, unsure if there is a role
urine marking; spraying more common in males, not always affected by neutering, doesnt appear to indicate territory
pheromones; roles in sexual and maternal behaviour, skin secretions, urine
behaviour highlights of rabbits
-naturally crepuscular, but domestrics largely diurnal
-need a varied diet beyond pellets
-long rest periods, brief spurts of energy
-copraphagia 3-8 hours after eating
-marking through rubbing, urine spraying
options for referral for behavioural issues (3)
- board certified vet behaviourist
- certified applied animal behaviourist
- trainers
history information you need for behavioural consults
-pet info, family info, home environment and activities (training), housetraining, responses to people/animals/common stimuli, health concerns
principle complaint too!!
prognosis of behaviour is improved with what
-clear dx
-related stimuli can be identified and managed
-problem is mild, short duration, simple
-low motivation and arousal, easy to interrupt
-previous evidence of success for the given problem
-minimal risk of injury
-family members capable, committed, consistent, plus have a good grasp of the problem and treatment
3 components of a treatment plan for a behavioural consult
- owner education
- modify the environment
- modify the animals
fear vs anxiety vs phobia
fear; emotional response to a present of threatened danger
anxiety; reaction to a prospective or imagined danger or uncertainty
phobia; marked, persistent, excessive fear of clearly discernible objects or situations
three main factors that influence fear
-genetic predisposition
-previous experience, specific plus developmental
-current situation; anything that affects perceived risk
common fear related problems (3)
- fear of people, places, objects noises; associated with specific triggers
- generalized anxiety; no clear triggers, normally across a range of situations
- separation anxiety; distress response when left alone or when separated from a specific person or people
general treatment recommendations for fear
owner education
-identification of fear, remain calm, no excessive soothing to reduce anxiety transfer
management
-identify all problem stimuli and avoid exposure outside of training
-use muzzle if potential for aggression
-use leash/head halters to improve control
behaviour modification
-no positive punishment
-general training for control and to build confidence
-training for settle, watch and touch for use during training
-desensitization and counterconditioning
-medication if response is intense, adjust to threshold
common fear related behaviour problems (3)
- fear of ppl, places, objects, noises: associated with specific triggers
- generalized anxiety: no clear triggers, normally across a range of situations
- separation anxiety: distress repsonse when left alone, or when separated from a specific person or people
what is fear of people/places/objects and noises associated with
-previous negative experiences with stimulus
-missing particular exposures during socialization
what do you need to consider with differential dx of fear of people/places/objects and noises
-consider related behavioural problems based on signalment and history
-sudden onset may be related to underlying injury or disease that influences fear thresholds (pain, discomfort, endocrine disorders, neurological issues)
what improves prognosis of fear
prognosis better with adequate socialization
treatment for fear of people/places/objects and noises (4)
-manage exposure to stimulus outside training
-desensitization and counterconditioning
-settle, watch and touch can be helpful for control and redirection, plus calm and confidence building
-consider situational and daily medication if necessary
how to prevent noise phobia
what is a risk factor
controlled early exposure to a variety of noises
risk factors for specific noises include experience during first 4 months of life
diagnosis of noise phobia (4)
-some breed differences, increases with dog age
-often extreme responses by the time owners seek help (pacing, escape attempts, hiding, vocalizations, etc)
-may be responsive to visual stimuli associated with noise
-diff dx; if not observed it may be mistaken for elimination disorders, destructive behaviours
prognosis of noise phobia
-good for specific noises, reduced for generalized anxiety
-chance for relapse high is high without maintenance
-thunderstorm phobia can be more than just noise, better resolution if treated before associated with other stimuli
treatment of noise phobia
-owner education; continued reinforcement is necessary for maintenance
-management; prevent/reduce impact of exposure outside training, limit potential for self harm
medications for noise phobia
acute; alprazolam and other benzos
-also clomipramine or fluozetine can help
diagnosis of generalized anxiety; signs, what is it associated with
-any sex, age, breed and some genetic influencces
-behavioural and physiological signs of fear/aggression (key is global response rather than to specific stimuli)
-associated with; previous negative experience which becomes generalized, inadequate socialization, congnitive decline with age, unavoidable stressors in the environment
diff dx and prognosis for generalized anxiety
diff dx; underlying injury/disease that influences fear thresholds, other related behavioural disorders
-prognosis; good for improveent, but often poor for complete resolution, key factor is level of socialization
treatment for generalized anxiety
management; triage concerns based on animal welfare and owner needs. provide predictable routines, calm environments, stable social environment
behavioural modification; teach settle, watch, touch exercises, preferably specific safe location. medications likely useful like clomipramine, fluoxetine
what is separation anxiety in dogs? whats it associated with
-anxiety of destructive behaviours when alone OR when separated from a particular person
associated with pessimism; a negative emotional state
can be a serious welfare concern
diagnosis of separation anxiety
-any age, sex, breed, some genetic influences
-behavioural and physiological signs of fear/anxiety at separation and during absence
-other behavioural signs during absence; destructive behaviours, urination, vocalizations, repetitive locomotion, self injury, anorexia, etc
-associated with hyperattachment to owners, generalized anxiety, cognitive decline
risk factors for separation anxiety
single owner, neutered, rehomed, recent changes to home and family composition, lack of obedience training
differential dx and prognosis for separation anxiety
diff dx
-vocalization due to other issues, destructive behaviours, elimination disorders, stereotypic/compulsive behaviours, cognitive dysfunction
prognosis; good for improvement, complete resolution may not be possible in severe cases. may take weeks to months to resolve, setbacks due to extended time away/at home
anxiety indicators in cats
housesoiling, vocalizations, aggression
looks different from dogs
treatment for separation anxiety; owner education and management
owner education; dispel anthropomorphic reasoning
management; safe environments to prevent destruction and self injury, during treatment avoid separation/reduce impact (clonidine, traz/gaba/benzos), exercise and mental stimulation esp before separation
what makes a serious animal welfare issue? (3)
-potential for other animals to be harmed
-breakdown of the human animal bond (relinquishment, healthy euthanasia)
-potential for neglect and abuse by frustrated owners (use of punishment based training, ostracized by family)
canine bite levels (6)
1- pre bite
2- near bite (dont break skin)
3 - skin punctures, single or multiple bites
4-single bite with deeper punctures
5- multiple bites with deep punctures or multiple attack incidence
6-victim killed or flesh consumed
key legal info for bites
dog owners liability act
-owner is liable for damages arised from a bite from any breed of dog, proceedings can be commenced with a bite to a person or domestic animal or with menacing behaviour
health protection and promotion act
-vets must report mammal bites to public health
what are the options for owners in terms of risk assessment for aggression
-treat the animal in the home; important to understand owners goals
-relinquish to someone with more experience or a better environment for the problem
-euthanize
what are the options for vets in terms of risk assessment for aggression
-treat; simple cases with low risk of injury
-refer; any time you are unsure if you are capable of handling it
differential diagnosis for aggression in general in dogs
-consider possible underlying medical problems (neuro cause, pain, discomfort, medication side effects)
differentiate between different types and targets of aggression
what factors do we need to consider for risk assessment/prognosis of aggression
the owners; lack of control is a disaster
the animal; assess potential for and likelihood of damage
aggression details; lack of predictability is a disaster
types of aggression by target
human direction; owner directed vs stranger direted
interdog/cat/species; familiar and unfamiliar animals
categories of aggression by motivation/function (10)
-fear related/defensive
-resource guarding/possessive aggression/food aggression/conflict
-territorial and protective
-redirected (bites not original target)
-predatory (chase instinct)
-play related (unruly play)
-petting induced (feline, during touch)
-pain induced/iatrogenic
-maternal/paternal; offspring, hormonal, temporary
-pathophysiological; underlying neural dysfunction
general management for aggression (3)
-identify all stimuli that elicit fear/aggresion and avoid
-manage with separation barriers
-improve safety and control with head halter and basket muzzle
is fluoxetine/clomipramine for aggression
no its not licensed for aggression. fear/anxiety only
what does aggression and positive punishment result in
danger!!!!
escalation of aggression, lowers threshold for aggression overtime, causes redirected aggression, further reduces trust, results in injuries
resource guarding presentation and treatment
rapid ingestion of food, keey away/body blocking, threats, bite attempts
management; dont compete for resources, remove triggers. treat drop it and leave it,
fear related aggression presentation and management
response to threatening stimuli. fearful body postures early on but can switch to confident aggressive behaviours over time. often increased by leash/crowding
management; identify stimuli that elicit fear and avoid. behaviour modification, medication (TCAs/SSRIs)
diagnosis or stranger direction/territoral aggression
-directed towards outside people/animals, onset generally at social maturity, occurs on family property or with family, more common in guard breeds and intact males, influenced by previous success
diagnosis and treatment of redirected aggression
dx; heightened emotional state, aggression is redirected to unintended target
treatment; avoid overarousal, avoid contact when overstimulated, understand and treat initial trigger
treatment, diagnosis and prognosis for predatory aggression
diagnosis; predatory sequence with no threat behaviours
prognosis; generally poor with strong prey drive
treatment; segregation for safety, alternative outlets for energy and play, training for strong recall, difficult to treat if motivation is high
diagnosis, prognosis and prevention of play related aggression
-excessive play behaviour directed towards people or other animals
-aggression is inhibited
prognosis; good with early prevention
management; dont use hands or feet to play, interrupt and redirect
petting induced aggression in cats; diagnosis, prognosis, management
dx; low threshold for physical contact
prognosis; good if owners respect boundaries
management; identify threshold, retraining with D+CC
preventing problems with children
-proper socialization
-proper management
-teach children animal signals and appropriate interactions
welfare issues of medically unnecessary surgieries (MUS) (4)
-surgical complications
-chronic pain
-impaired communication
-impaired defense for declaw
types of MUS
ear crop; not related to ear infection risk
tail dock; minimal effect on tail injuries
declaw and debark; behavioural prevention and alternatives available
what does feline declawing increase the odds of (3)
-back pain
-inappropriate elimination
-aggression
what are animal and owner aspects that has lead to a large number of homeless animals
animal; behaviour issues
owner; unmet expectations, expenses, change in circumstances, uncontrolled breeding
lack of value for animals
welfare issues for feral cats
limited food and care, often harsh environments, impact of welfare
welfare issues for animals in shelters
~10% of pet population relinquished per year (15% of dogs, 50% of cats euthanized)
-many animals remain in shelters for extended periods. (environment is stressful and barren, no kill shelters can pose serious concerns for welfare)
-some animals end up in revolving door
new additions to the PAWS act related to puppy mill regulations (4)
-cant breed female <12 months or before second heat
-cant breed parent/offspring or siblings
-cant separate puppies at <56 days
-providing dogs or premises for use in puppy mill activities
puppy mill identifiers (3)
-failure to address matting, visible parasites, or emaciation
-failure to isolate with contagious diseases
-failure to maintain clean environment
unintentional health issues with indiscriminant breeding (2)
deafness in dalmations, epilepsy in border collies
intention breeding for exaggerated features (3)
english bulldog; heads too large to birth normally
bulldog/pug/boston terrier; brachycephalic (flattening of the face impedes breathing)
dachshund; extendend back related to vertebral issues and pain
welfare consequences and solutions of genetic issues
welfare
-pain or discomfort resulting from the condition or treatment of the condition
-restricted mobility affecting ability to perform species-typical behaviours
solutions
-selective breeding to restrict known genetic conditions (screening for hip dysplasia)
-relaxation of selection extremes or focus on individuals that appear to cope well with the extreme
what are some welfare issues with people hiding dogs as a result of breed specific legislation
socialization issues and lack of vet care
welfare issues with sport fighting (4)
-animal injury and death; fights can last 1-2 hours
-suboptimal housing and care
-training with bait animals
-encourages insensitivity to animals in general
welfare issues and solutions to breeding for profit
welfare issues
-unintentional health and behaviour problems
-inadequate environments and vet care
-ongoing behavioural problems due to poor socialization during early critical periods
-stress and further issues with importation from abroad
solutions
-government regulations for breeders
-only purchase from reputable sources; no pet stores or online
general treatment strategies for aggression (4)
-warn owners of liability issues
-treatment/management is ongoing
-beware of unfamiliar situations
-proper recognition of signs of fear and aggression and appropriate methods for approach and response
can aggression be cured?
it can be improved/managed but it cant be cured. always a chance of relapse
development and behaviour highlights of guinea pigs
precocial, but still dependent on sow for first few weeks
-stress sensitive - quiet environment, access to hide
-neophobic; sensitive to changes in water and food
-ingest cecotropes throughout the day
ferrets; feeding, olfactory signs
feeding
-obligate carnivores, prefer multiple small meals
-olfactory critical period at 60-90 days
olfactory signals
-show marking behaviour; communication, territorial marking, may increase with new additions
feline behaviour development; adolescent
Adolescent
* Maturation of motor skills
* Ongoing socialization
* Adoption ideally at 10-16 weeks?
overview of early behaviour education for clients (5)
- Appropriate socialization
- Appropriate training methods
- Meeting behavioural needs
- Pet-proofing
- Early behaviour issues
* Housetraining (covered later), jumping up, puppy biting/chewing, kitten rough play
what behaviour has been changed in laying hens
Broodiness – incubation and care of chicks- has been heavily selected ”out”
Feeding behaviour has become more efficient
* Laying hens “work less” for food
* But foraging behaviour still seems to be very important
Some abnormal behaviours have
developed that we don’t fully understand
* Absence of foraging substrate is a risk for feather pecking….but it is not the whole story
what needs to be considered with laying hen welfare
- Confinement housing (battery cages) improved health, hygiene, efficiency but with significant behavioural costs to the hen
- Earlier sexual maturity & greater egg production increases demand for calcium leading to osteoporosis, high risk for bone fractures
what is cooperative care in horses
- Cooperative care is a method of training that allows the animal to
participate in it’s own care and husbandry/medical procedures - The animal has a sense of agency and control by being able to deliver and withdraw consent
behaviour problems in horses (6)
Fears and phobias
* Vet, farrier, trailering….
* Separation anxiety
Aggression
* Towards people: fear, pain, learned behaviour
* Towards other horses: sex hormones, fear, territory, pain (esp breeding)
Narcolepsy
* More often recumbent sleep deprivation
Headshaking
Learned helplessness
* “stubborn”
Other
* Self-mutilation, kicking, bucking, bolting, spooking
normal visual and audition for horses
vision
* Recognize familiar conspecifics and people
* Can differentiate between twins, recognize person from photo
* Poor visual acuity - Binocular vision at the end of the nose only
audition
* Poor acuity
* Wider range 55 to 33,500 Hz
* Rarely suffer hearing loss
abnormal repetitive behaviours in horses
- Displacement behaviour – normal behaviour displayed out of context (in a stressful or anxiety-producing situation).
- Can become emancipated from the original cause – Compulsive Disorder
- Confinement, lack of social contact, frustration, barren environments, lack of foraging opportunity, high concentrate diets, genetics, use, early weaning.
what are the negative effects of cribbing in horses
- Wears teeth
- Temporohyoid osteoarthropathy
- EGUS
- Weight loss
- Gas colic – surgical, poor recovery
impacts on horse welfare (6)
- Fibrous diet consumed throughout the day -> meal feeding concentrate
- Constant activity over a wide range -> box stalls, small paddocks
- Stable social groups individual housing, fluctuating social groups
(Mixing sexes? – Jørgensen et al 2009 no sex effect on aggression, space) - Sleep deprivation
- “Buddy sour/barn sour”
- Competition season during breeding season
six attributes for locomotion scoring in dairy
head bob, spinal arch, joint flexion, swinging in and out, tracking up, asymmetric steps/reluctance to bear weight
Three components of proAction’s animal care assessment
- Producer self-evaluation questionnaire: 20 questions to determine whether they are meeting (certain) Requirements from the Code of Practice
- Mandatory records: SOPs: colostrum management & calf feeding, health practices and branding, euthanasia, shipping cattle
- Mandatory records: Cattle assessment / animal-based measures: BCS, hock, knee, and neck injuries, lameness
issue and rationale for early maternal separation in dairy
Issue:
Calves are taken away from the dam before they are 1 day old.
Rationale:
* Dairy production is about milk… (calves are in direct “competition” for the saleable product)
* Leaving calves to nurse can interfere with milk let- down – cows holding back their milk
* Separation can reduce the risk of transmitting certain diseases (e.g., Johnes disease)
issues and rationale for lameness and body injuries in dairy
Issues:
-Lameness: Dairy cows have a number of different problems with their feet and legs, manifest as abnormal gait and limping
-Injuries: Aberrations on their tarsal and carpal joints, and on the dorsal aspect of the neck, often referred to
as “injuries”
Rationale:
-Farmers underestimate the prevalence of these issues, and so they may not think they have a problem
-Vets have focused more on sickness and disease and these issues do not really fall into those categories
-Farmers and vets have focused on things that impact productivity and profitability (e.g., mastitis, reproductive health, ketosis)
-Causes of these problems are multi-factorial, and complex (i.e., no quick fix). Not all animals at a facility are affected
problems related to lying
- Lying in alleyways or transfer alleys
- Lying backwards (turned-around) in the stall
- Not standing-up or lying-down in a natural way, resulting, over time, in injury
- Extreme lying durations (both short, and long)
Prioritizing welfare issues can be done based on: (3)
- Prevalence – how common is the problem and / or what proportion of dairy animals does the problem effect *
- Severity – how impactful the issue would be on the animal in terms of eliciting negative affects
- Duration – period of time over which the animal would be affected
significance of behaviour problems during handling in dairy cows
- Welfare implications: cattle (e.g., fear, pain, distress)
- Risk of injury to handlers (farmers, vets)
- Increases handling time × multiple handling events/d
- Risk of injury to the cattle (slips, and falls)
- Negative welfare implications: humans (e.g., frustration, negative reciprocal effects)
significance of non nutritive sucking by calves
- Important means of disease transmission (?)
- Hairballs may form in the digestive tract
- Urine may be ingested esp when males are subjects
- Considered “abnormal” - not seen by calves raised on cows
- Possibly linked to “milk stealing” during lactation (?)
problem behaviours during handling in dairy cows; kicking
- Kicking – especially at milking
* Nervous or fearful cows
* Injured or sore teats
prevention and treatment of behaviour problems during handling in dairy cows
- Use and habituate cows to good handling
- Follow natural behaviour principles:
- Flight zone (smaller for dairy vs beef cattle
- Point of balance
- Following behaviour
- Habituate cows to the facilities
- Provide good facilities:
- Well-lit
- Limited presentation of novel stimuli
5 behaviour problems in dairy cows
- Nose-pressing
- Tongue-rolling
- Problem behaviour during handling
- Non-nutritive sucking by calves
- Problems related to lying
problem behaviours during handling in dairy cows; balking
- Balking (stopping - refusing to move forward)
* Shadows and stark flooring transitions in flooring
* Entering the milking parlour
* Passing through a foot bath
* Loading onto a truck / trailer
changes to normal DAIRY cattle behaviour; vigilance, maternal, reproductive, feeding and social behaviours
- Vigilance: reduced by 6,000 to 9,000 years of artificial selection for docility (esp. fear of humans)
- Maternal: cow-calf separation, and selection for milk let- down, do not favour strong maternal care traits
- Reproductive behaviour: seasonal breeding receptivity replaced by ability to breed year-round, also artificial insemination
- Feeding: Totally Mixed Ration (TMR) diet, often zero- grazing by the animal; delivery impacts timing of feeding esp important lactating cows
- Social behaviour: impacted by hand-rearing calves (e.g., dairy bulls more aggressive toward human
handlers)
leadership based training; what to encourage, outcomes
Encourage performance of particular behaviours without force
* Work to earn with rewards for appropriate behaviours
- Attention, food, play, etc
* Ignore or redirect unwanted behaviours
Better outcomes
* Changes emotional state associated with situation in a positive manner
* Rewarded behaviours become habit over time
how is leadership different from dominance? training methods for each
Leadership = initiation of group
activities
* Based on affiliative behaviours not
dominance
* Participants want to join in
Training methods
* Dominance – make dogs do
something by force or intimidation
* Leadership – convince dogs that
they want to do something using
consistency and positive reinforcement of wanted behaviours
is dominance a personality trait? is it an explanation for behaviour issues?
no
what is normal behaviour
-Adaptive behaviours that promote health, survival and reproduction
approach for schedule of reinforcement
Initially reward every time to help
solidify the association
approaches for strength of reinforcement
Food is effective for most animals
* Balance internal versus external
factors for reward value
approaches to timing of reinforcement
The faster the better
* Assists with making the connection between the behaviour and the reward
3 questions to ask when deciphering what training approach is being done
- What is the behaviour?
- Is the behaviour increasing or decreasing?
- Am I applying something or taking it away?
evidence of potential learning impairments (3)
- Dog performance on a novel learning task was reported to be better for reward versus positive punishment-based training (Rooney & Cowan, 2011)
- Dogs at training schools using negative-reinforcement based methods showed more stress behaviours and those at schools that used positive- reinforcement showed more attentiveness (Deldalle & Gaunet, 2014)
- Increased obedience correlated with use of rewards but not positive
punishment, and problematic behaviours were related to positive punishment but not rewards (Hiby et al., 2004)
evidence of potential welfare issues (2)
- More stress behaviours in dogs trained with shock collars in comparison to dogs trained with positive reinforcement (Cooper et al., 2014)
- Direct reactions to shock suggest pain, and more stress behaviours during both training and free walking in dogs trained with shock collars versus control dogs (Schilder & van der Borg, 2004)
what is counter conditioning? what can it be used for? what to be aware of?
- Strengthen relationship between two stimuli
- Can be used to change emotional states associated with a situation or procedure by pairing it with something good
- Be aware of potential for opposite effects
what approach do you take if you want to increase a behaviour and apply something? example
positive reinforcement - give treat after a trick
what approach do you take if you want to decrease a behaviour and apply something? example
positive punishment - shock collar
what approach do you take if you want to increase a behaviour and remove something? example
negative reinforcement - gentle lead while walking
what is sensitization
Repeated exposure to the stimulus results in an increase in response
- sometimes generalizes to other similar stimuli
what is systematic desensitization
Step-wise exposure to a gradually increasing intensity of an aversive stimulus to decrease the response
- Start around threshold for response
- Increase to next level when calm
