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Chemistry S2 > Test 3: Energy Principals and Material Metabolism > Flashcards

Test 3: Energy Principals and Material Metabolism Flashcards

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1
Q

What is digestion? What is its function? Where does it occur? How does it occur? What is broken down into what? What is it controlled by?

A
  • breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones (hydrolysis)
  • allows nutrients to be absorbed
  • occurs in the gastrointestinal tract
  • action of enzymes, bile and hydrochloric acid

proteins –> amino acids
fats –> fatty acids, monoglycerides
starch –> glucose

  • controlled by the nervous system and hormones
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2
Q

State the different pancreatic enzymes, their substrates and digestive products.

trypsin, lipase, phospholipase, alpha amylase

A

enzyme - substrate - digestive product
trypsin - protein - smaller fragments
chymotrypsin - protein - smaller fragments
carboxypeptidase - protein - smaller fragments
lipase - fats - fatty acids & monoglycerides
phospholipase - lecithin & related compounds - free fatty acids
alpha amylase - starch - maltose & glucose

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3
Q

What is absorption? Its function? How are things absorbed?

A
  • passage of nutrients from the gut into the blood stream
  • allows nutrients to be utilized
  • active transport / passive diffusion
  • fat soluble vitamins are absorbed along fat
  • water soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion
  • minerals: fully absorbed (eg. Na+) or partially aborbed (eg. Cu2+, Fe2+, Ca2+, Zn2+)
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4
Q

What is metabolism? What are the two types of metabolism? What are the energy sources of metabolsim?

A
  • refers to all the chemical changes which take place in the body,
  • anabolism: syntheiss of glycogen, fat and proteins
  • catabolism: breakdown of substances
  • energy sources: amino acids, fatty acids, monosaccharides
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5
Q

How are carbohydrated digested? Into what are they tranformed? Where are they absorbed?

A

DIGESTION TYPE:
ruminant- microbial
non ruminant- enzymes (herbivorous, omnivorous, carnivorous)

DIGESTION OUTCOME:
ruminant: Volatile Fatty Acids (in rumen)
non-ruminant: Glucose (in small intestine)

FINAL ABSORPTION:
ruminant: into blood circulation
non-ruminant: into blood circulation

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6
Q

What is the digestion of carbohydrates catalysed by?

A

glycoside hydrolases (glycosidases)

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7
Q

Explain the digestion of carbohydrates.

A

CARBOHYDRATES:
- plant = starch
- animal = glycogen

MOUTH:
- alpha amylase (starch and glycogen) –> hydrolyses alpha (1-4) bonds

PANCREASE:
- pancreatic amylase (remaining poly and ogliiosaccharides) –> hydrolyses alpha (1-4) bonds
- starch & glycogen –> maltose

SMALL INTESTINE:
- sucrase
- lactase
- maltase

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8
Q

What does alpha amylase not hydrolyse? Where is it present?

A
  • alpha 1-6 bonds
  • present in: amylopectin and glycogen
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9
Q

Summarise the digestion of carbohydrates in monogastrics.

A
  • polysaccharides –> monosaccharides
  • monosaccharides taken up by active transport/ facilitated diffusion
  • monosaccharides to liver
  • glucose to cells
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10
Q

Summarise the digestion of carbohydrates in ruminants. What do ruminants not have?

A
  • microbes= fermentat fibre & starch –> energy for cells, VFA, CO2 & methane
  • VFA absorbed by host –> supplies energy for glucose synthesis
  • no salivary amylase
  • pancretic amylase for starch
  • cellulolytic bacteria (digest fiber)
  • amylolytic bacteria (digest sugars and starch)

RUMEN:
- microbes attach to fibers and secrete enzymes
- produce VFA
- digest polysaccharides, cellulose, hemicellulose

SMALL INTESTINE:
- secrete digestive enzymes
- digest carbohydrates
- absorb H2O, minerals, amino acids, glucose, fatty acids

CECUM & LARGE INTESTINE:
- fermentation of unabsorbed products
- absorption of H2O, VFA
- feces formation

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11
Q

What are fatty acids? What are their 3 basic types?

A

glucose –> VFA’s
- short chain fatty acids
- produced by microbes

3 types:
- acetic acid
- propionic acid
- butyric acid

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12
Q

What does 1 glucose molecule yield (VFA)? Describe how they are formed.

A

1) 2 acetate + CO2 + CH4 + heat
- acetyl CoA / formate –> acetate

2) 2 propionate + water
- succinate decarboxylation pathway –> propionate
- acrylate pathway: lactate –> propionate

3) 1 bytyrate + CO2 + CH4
- acetyl CoA + acetyl CoA –(butyrate kinase/acetate CoA transferase)–> butyrate

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13
Q

What are the uses of the different types of VFA’s?

A

ACETATE:
- energy
- fatty acid synthesis

PROPIONATE:
- energy
- gluconeogenic-glucose synthesis

BUTYRATE:
- energy
- rumen epithelial cells –> ketone (beta hydroxybytyrate)

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14
Q

What does the proportion of VFA’s depend on?

A

diets

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15
Q

What are the major constituents of dietary fat?

A

Triglycerides (TG’s)

smaller amounts:
- cholecterol (CH)
- cholesterol esters (CEs)
- phospholipids (PLs)
- fat soluble vitamins

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16
Q

What hormones regulate lipolysis? How do they regulate it?

What are they secreted by? Where?

A
  • cholestokinin (CCK) (activated the release of bile of the gall bladder)
  • secretin (biliary and pancreatic cells secrete NaHCO3–> neutralization of acidic chyme)

endocrine cells of the duodenum

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17
Q

What is the main function of the gallbladder?

A
  • provide bile salts and lecithin
  • emulsify fats
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18
Q

Explain the function of pancreatic lipase.

A

hydrolyses fatty acids: position 1 and 3
produces free fatty acids (FA) and 2 monoacylglycerols.

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19
Q

Explain the function of phospholipase.

A

Phospholipase (PLA2):
- releases FA from C’2
- generates phospholipids and 1 free FA

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20
Q

Explain the function of cholesterol esterase.

A
  • releases FA from cholesterol ester
  • forms CH and FFA
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21
Q

Explain lipid absorption in the small intestine.

A

Lipid digestion end products –(micelles)–> luminal cells of jejunal mucosa (diffuse through brush borders, leaving bile salts behind)

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22
Q

What happens to bile salts once they are left behind when micelles are dissociated?

A
  • return to lumen
  • incorporate highly lipophylic dietary materials and move them to the jejunal surface
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23
Q

How are short and MCFAs absorbed?

A
  • high water solubility
  • not dependent on micelles
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24
Q

How are lippoproteins classified?

A

density:
- HDL
- LDL
- VLDL (triglycerides and cholesterol)
- Chylomicron (triglycerides)

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25
Q

How are fats transported? With what? Where?

A
  • transported by: Chylomicrons (CM) (together with free CH, and absorbed fat soluble vitamins)
  • trasported to: lymphatic system
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26
Q

Explain monogastric protein digestion.

A

pepsinogen + HCL –> pepsin

pepsin:
- optimal pH -2pH
- breaks peptide bonds between ttyrosine and phenylalanine amino acids
- produces peptide fragments and amino acids
- location: stomach

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27
Q

What amino acid groups does pepsin digest?

A
  • phenylalanine (Phe)
  • tyrosine (Tyr)
  • tryptophan (Trp)
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28
Q

What structures does pepsin digest?

A
  • secondary
  • tertiary
  • quartenary
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29
Q

What are the major enzymes present in the small intestine for protein digestion?

A
  • trypsin (activated by trypsinogen): splits proteins into smaller peptides and single amino acids (cleaves on carboxy of Lys and Arg)
  • chymotrypsin (activated by chymotrypsinogen): splits proteins into smaller peptides and single amino acids (cleaves carboxy terminal Phe, Tyr, and Trp)
  • carboxypeptidase: splits single amino acids from the carboxyl end of proteins (removes carboxy terminal residues)
  • aminopeptidase: continues protein digestion (removes amino terminal residues)
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30
Q

How do proteins cross the small intestine wall?

A

single amino acids, dipeptides and tripeptides: absorbed

free amino acids: co-transported via secondary active transport (Na+)

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31
Q

What is the principal function of the plasma membrane?

A
  • control the passage of substances (selectively permeable)
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32
Q

What are the main macromolecules of membranes?

A
  • lipids
  • proteins
    • some carbohydrates
33
Q

What is the model called created by the lipids in membranes which produce a unique physical environment?

A

fluid mosaic model

34
Q

Esplain the structure of the fluid mosaic model.

A
  • phospholipids form a bilayer
  • non-polar regions (tails) point inwards
  • polar regions (heads) point outwards
  • embedded proteins
35
Q

What are the three types of amphipatic lipid aggregated which form in water?

A
  • micelle
  • liposome
  • phospholipid bilayer
36
Q

What does amphipathic mean? What is it used to describe?

A
  • membrane lipids
  • ## one end of the molecule is hydrophillic, the other is hydrophobic
37
Q

What is the most abundant membrane lipid?

A

phospholipid

38
Q

What two groups are phospholipids divided into?

A
  • glycerophospholipids
  • shingolipids
39
Q

State examples of glycerophospholipids.

A
  • lecithin
  • cephalin
40
Q

What is a spingolipid? Explain its structure.

A
  • polar group and 2 non-polar tails
  • sphingosine (long chain alcohol & amino group) / its derivatives (long fatty acid chain) and a polar head
41
Q

State an example of a sphingo lipids. State its composition.

A

sphingomyelin
- amide bond b/w a fatty acid and sphingosine (18C alcohol)

42
Q

Where is sphingomyelin present?

A
  • plasma membranes (animal cells)
  • myelin (membranous sheath surrounding and insulating neuron axons)
43
Q

What are glycosphingolipid?

A

monosaccharides bonded to the -OH of sphingosine
- glycosidic bond

eg. cerebroside + galactose (plasma membrane)

44
Q

What are gangliosides?

A

2+ monosaccharides
sphingosine
fatty acid

similar to cerebrosides

45
Q

State an example of a ganglioside

A

GM2

46
Q

State the common structure of a steroid.

A

4 fused rings:
-3 cyclohexane rings
- 1 cyclopentane ring

47
Q

State the structure of cholesterol.

A
  • 3 cyclohexane rings
  • 1 cyclopentane ring
  • methyl groups
  • OH attached to the steroid nucleus
48
Q

State the main features of cholesterol.

A
  • synthesised in the liver
  • obtained from food
  • needed for cell membranes, brain, nervous tissue, steroid hormones and vitamin D
49
Q

Explain lipoproteins. Solubility?

A
  • lipid + protein + phospholipid
  • soluble in water
  • classified into LDL, HDL, VLDV, Chylomicron
50
Q

Explain the main parts of bile salts.

A
  • synthesised in the liver
  • synthesized from cholesterol
  • stored in the gall bladder
  • secreted into the small intestine
  • have polar and non-polar regions
  • emulsify fats
51
Q

Explain the main parts of steroid hormones.

A
  • chemical messengers
  • produced from cholesterol
  • eg. sex hormones, adrenal corticosteroids
52
Q

What molecules are produced from cholesterol?

A
  • bile salts
  • steroid hormones
53
Q

Explain the main parts of adrenal corticosteroids.

A
  • steroid hormones
  • produced in adrenal glands (top of kidney)
  • eg. aldosterone (water+electrolyte balance); cortisone (blood sugar regulation)
54
Q

Explain the main parts of anabolic steroids.

A
  • derivatives of testosterone
  • illegally increase muscle mass
  • side effects: sleep disturbance, hair growth, liver damage etc.
55
Q

Explain the main parts of prostaglandins.

A
  • related to unsaturated fatty acids
  • all tissues
  • function: treatment of inflammatory diseases, blood pressure regulation, metabolism
56
Q

What does aspirin do? What does that lead to?

A
  • binds to cyclooxygenase
  • inhibits production of prostaglandins
  • reduction of inflammation and pain
57
Q

What is conformation?

A

The spatial arrangement of atoms in a protein.

58
Q

What are the functions of membrane proteins?

A
  • transporters
  • enzymes
  • cell surface area
  • cell surface identity markers
  • cell-to-cell adhesion proteins
  • attachment to the cytoskeleton
59
Q

What determines most of the membranes specific functions?

A

proteins

60
Q

What are the two types of membrane proteins?

A
  • integral proteins (inserted into the membrane)
  • peripheral proteins (top/bottom of membrane)
61
Q

What part of the membrane is important for cell-to-cell adhesion?

A

membrane carbohydrates:
- sort cells into tissues and organs
- reject foreign cells by the immune system
- recognise markers

62
Q

What compound usually makes cell markers?

A

carbohydrates:
- branched ogliosaccharides (< 15 monomers)
- covalently bonded to lipids (glycolipids)
- covalently bonded to proteins (glycoproteins)

63
Q

Explain passive transport.

A
  • movement of molecules through a membrane
  • no energy is required
  • concentration gradient
64
Q

Explain diffusion.

A
  • movement of molecules
  • high to low concentration
65
Q

What is selective permeability? What allows for it?

A
  • integral membrane proteins allow the cell to be selective about what passes through the membrane
66
Q

Explain channel proteins.

A
  • polar interior (polar molecules pass through)
  • ion channels: passage of ions
  • gated channels: opened or closed (chemical/electrical stimulus)
67
Q

What are carrier proteins?

A
  • carry molecules through a membrane
  • bind to specific molecules
68
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A
  • high –> low concentration
  • specific
  • passive
  • saturates when all carriers are occupied
  • carrier protein involved
69
Q

What does glucose transport?

A
  • erythrocytes
  • mediates passive transport
70
Q

What is the difference between the solvent and solute?

A

solvent- water
solute- dissolved substance

71
Q

What is osmosis?

A
  • water movement
  • high to low concentration
  • water moves to high solute concentration
72
Q

In what two conformations does the glucose transporter exist as?

A

T1: glucose binding site exposed on the outer surface of the plasma
T2: glucose binding site exposed on the inner surface of the plasma

73
Q

What is a hypertonic solution? Hypotonic?

A

hypertonic: high solute concentration
hypotonic: low solute concentration

74
Q

How does osmosis move water? Toward what solution?

A
  • through aquaporins
  • towards the hypertonic solution
75
Q

How do organisms maintain osmotic balance?

A
  • extrusion (Water ejected through contractile vacuoles)
  • isosmotic regulation (kepp cells in isotonic environment)
  • turgor pressure (plants: push cell membrane agains cell wall)
76
Q

What is active transport?

A
  • requires ATP
  • used directly/indirectly to fuel active transport
  • low to high
  • carrier proteins required
77
Q

What are the types of carrier proteins used in active transport?

A
  • uniporters (1 molecule at a time)
  • symporters (2 molecules same direction)
  • antiporters (2 molecules different direction)
78
Q

What is the sodium potassium pump?

A
  • active transport
  • 3 Na+ out
  • 2 K+ in
  • ATP used to change conformation of the carrier protein
  • affinity of the carrier protein changes allowing ions to be transferred across the membrane

Chemistry S2 (5 decks)

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