Test 3 Chapters 9-12 Flashcards
Psychosexual Development
Posits a series of universal developmental stages in which psychic energy becomes focused in different erogenous zones
Psychic energy
the biologically based, instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts and feelings
erogenous zones
areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
Behaviorism
emphasize the role of external factors in shaping personality and behavior
Emphasize continuity in development, proposing that the same principles operate throughout life and there are not stages
Focus on mechanisms of change and argue that individual differences arise because of different histories of reinforcement and observation
Classical Conditioning
“Little Albert” experiment
Teaching a child to fear a rat leads the child to fear all white fluffy creatures
systematic desensitization
a form of therapy based on classical conditioning in which initially debilitating responses (Such as unreasonable fear) to a given stimulus are gradually deconditioned
Operant conditioning
behaviors followed by reinforces tend to increase
Behaviors followed by punishment tend to be suppressed
Social Learning Theories
emphasize observation and imitation, rather than reinforcement as the primary mechanisms of development
Bandura’s Research
Bobo doll experiment
Observing someone else receive a reward or punishment for the behavior affects the subsequent reproduction of the behavior
Boys were initially more aggressive than girls but the girls increased their level of imitation when offered rewards
Social Cognitive theories
focus on children’s ability to think and reason about their own and other people’s thoughts, feelings, motives and behaviors
Emphasize the process of self-socialization
Self-socialization
children’s active shaping of their own development through their activity preferences, friendship choices and other behaviors
Information-Processing Approach
Dodge
emphasize the crucial role of cognitive processes in social behavior
Proposes that children go through six steps in solving social problems
Six steps in solving social problems
- encode a problematic event
- interpret the social cues involved in it
- formulate a goal to resolve the incident
- Generate strategies to achieve the goal
- evaluate the potential strategies
- Enact the behavior
Ecological Perspectives
take a broad view of the environment
Emphasize nature and nurture, the role of sociocultural context and continuity in development
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner
The child develops within a complex system of relationships which are affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
Bidirectional relationship between the child and the environment
Emotion
motivational force or action tendency
Discrete emotions theory
emotions are viewed as innate and discrete from one another from very early in life and each emotion is believed to be packaged wit ha specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions
Functionalist
the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal
Emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
Positive/negative emotions
Social smiles (6 weeks)
Distress
Anger (2 months)
Fear in Infants
Fear of strangers (6/7 months- 24 months) Separation anxiety (8 months- 15 months)
Self-conscious emotions
Guilt
shame
embarrassment
Pride/joy
social competence
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
Children’s understanding of emotions
distinguish emotional expressions (4-7 months)
Perceive others’ emotional expression as meaningful (7 months)
Social referencing (8-12 months)
Label some emotions (3 years)
Causes of emotions (3-5 years)
Display rules (Preschool and elementary)
Social referencing
8-12 months old
use of a parent’s facial, gestural or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous or possibly threatening situations
Display rules
social group’s informal norms about when, where and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotions should be suppressed or masked
Attachment
an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time
John Bowlby
biological predisposition to develop attachments with caregivers
Increases survival
Secure base
refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
4 phases of development of attachment
preattachment (Birth-6 weeks)
Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks-6/8 months)
Clear-cut attachment (6/8months- 1.5years)
Reciprocal Relationships (1.5 years +)
Preattachment
birth-6 weeks
in this phase the infant produces innate signals, most notably crying that summon caregivers and the infant is comforted by the ensuing interaction
Attachment in the making
6 weeks- 6/8 months
Infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people. they smile, laugh or babble in the presence of their primary caregiver and are more easily soothed by that person
clear-cut attachment
6/8months- 1.5 years
infants actively seek contact with their regular caregivers. They happily greet their mother when she appears. May experience separation anxiety or distress
Reciprocal Relationships
1.5 years+
toddlers’ rapidly increasing cognitive/language abilities enable them to understand their parents’ feelings, goals and motives and use this understanding to organize their efforts to be near their parents.
More mutually regulated relationship gradually emerges ads the child takes an increasingly active role in developing a working partnerships with his or her parents
Secure attachment
62% of typical American children
caregiver is a secure base
child may show some distress when the caregiver leaves
Insecure resistant or ambivalent attachment
10% of typical American children
child is clingy in the strange situation
child is upset when the caregiver leaves
child reestablishes contact but resists caregiver’s efforts at comfort
Insecure/avoidant attachement
15% of typical American Children
Child is indifferent towards caregiver
Child does not greet caregiver upon return
Child may be easily comforted by stranger
Disorganized/Disoriented attachment
15% of typical American children not part of Bowlby's original categories child shows no consistent way of coping child has a dazed expression child demonstrates variable behaviors
Cultural Variations in attachment
Similarities in strange situation behavior are seen in infants in China, western Europe and parts of Africa
Japanese infants are much less likely to be avoidant and infants and mothers are physically closer than in the US
Self
conceptual system made up of one’s thoughts and attitudes about oneself
Can include thoughts about one’s own physical being, social roles and relationships and “Spiritual” or internal characteristics
2-4 month old developing sense of self
rudimentary sense of self in the first month of life
Evidence: They can control objects outside of themselves. They understand their own bodily movements
8 month old developing sense of self
sense of self becomes more distant
Evidence: Respond to separation from primary caregivers with distress
18-24 months old developing sense of self
Many children can look into a mirror and realize that the image they see there is themselves
By 30 months of age, almost all children recognize their own photograph
Evidence: Rouge test
2 year old developing sense of self
Exhibit embarrassment and shame, self-assertive behavior (terrible two’s), and a use of language that includes self awareness (me, mine)
3-4 year old developing sense of self
understand themselves in terms of concrete observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities and abilities and psychological traits
Their self-evaluations during the preschool years are unrealistically positive
Elementary school years developing sense of self
social comparison leads to refinement of sense of self
Middle to late elementary school years developing sense of self
conception of self begins to become integrated and more broadly encompassing, reflecting cognitive advances in the ability to use higher-order concepts
Adolescents developing sense of self
think of themselves in terms of abstract characteristics that encompass a variety of concrete characteristics and behaviors
Variety of selves, depending on the context
identity confusion
an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self that may cause the adolescent to feel lost, isolated or depressed
negative identity
when the adolescent takes on an identity that is the opposite of what is valued by the people around the adolescent
Foreclosure
when the adolescent commits themselves prematurely to an identity
identity diffusion status
James Marcia
unresolved identity issues. Not making any progress in choosing an identity
Not a healthy status to be in
Foreclosure status
James Marcia
When you take on an identity that you think is expected of you and prematurely come to a conclusion that this is what your identity is
You haven’t done any exploration of what your identity should be
Not a healthy status to be in
Moratorium status
James Marcia
You are actively exploring what your identity should be
Is a healthy status to be in
Identity-achievement status
James Marcia
When you settle on an identity after healthy exploration
Is a healthy status to be in
