Test 1 Chapter 1-4 Flashcards
Nature
biological endowment
genetic predisposition
nurture
environment, both physical and social, that influence our development
Continuous development
age-related changes occur gradually
tree
discontinuous development
age-related changes include occasional large shifts
caterpillar to butterfly
Variation
differences in thought and behavior within and among individuals
selection
more frequent survival and reproduction of organisms that are well adapted to their environment
effortful attention
an aspect of temperament involving voluntary control of one’s emotions and thoughts
(inhibiting impulses, controlling emotions, focusing attention)
sociocultural context
the physical social, cultural, economic and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment
basic research
advance scientific knowledge, address the “big question”
applied research
designed to answer practical questions to improve children’s lives and experiences
reliability
the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent
inter-rater reliability
the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior
test-retest reliability
the degree of similarity of a child’s performance on two or more occasions
validity
the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
internal validity
the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated
external validity
the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research
structured interview
research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
clinical interview
a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
variables
attributes that vary across individuals and situations such as age, gender and expectations
correlation designs
studies intended to indicate how variables are related to each other
correlation
the association between two variables
correlation coefficient
a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of a correlation
direction-of-causation problem
the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, is causing the other
third-variable problem
the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable
Experimental designs
a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn
random assignment
a procedure in which each child has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment
experimental control
the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences that children have during the course of an experiment
experimental group
a group of children in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest
control group
the group of children in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly
independent variable
the thing that is being changes
dependent variable
the thing that is being measured
cross-sectional design
a research method in which children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time
longitudinal design
a method of study in which the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time
microgenetic design
a method of study in which the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period of time
DNA
the molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions
Chromosomes
molecules of DNA that transmit genetic information
Made up of genes
genes
sections of chromosomes that are the basic unit of heredity in all living things
conception
the union of an egg from the mother and a sperm from the father
gametes
reproductive cells that contain only half the genetic material of all the other cells in the body
epigenetics
the emergence of new structures over the course of development
germinal period
Conception-2 weeks
begins with conception and lasts until the zygote becomes implanted in the uterine wall. Rapid cell division takes place
embryonic period
3rd-8th week
following implantation, major development occurs in all the organs and systems of the body. Development takes place through the processes of cell division, cell migration, cell differentiation and cell death as well as hormonal influences
embryo
the name given to the developing organism from the 3rd-8th week of prenatal development
cell division
within 12 hours after fertilization the zygote divides into two equal parts, each containing a full complement of genetic material
cell migration
the movement of newly formed cells from their point of origin in the embryo to somewhere else
cell differentiation
after several cell divisions, cells starts to specialize in terms of both structure and function
Roughly 350 different types of cells in the human body which perform particular functions
stem cells
embryonic cells, which can develop into any type of body cell
apoptosis
genetically prorammed cell death
fetal period
9th week- birth
continued development of physical structures and rapid growth of the body. Increasing levels of behavior, sensory experience and learning
fetus
the name given to the developing organism from the 9th week to birth
Identical twins
twins that result from the splitting in half of the zygote, resulting in each of the two zygotes having exactly the same set of genes
fraternal twins
twins that result when two eggs happen to be released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm.
Fraternal twins have only half their genes in common
neural tube
a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells int he embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord
amniotic sac
a transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus
placenta
a support organ for the fetus
it keeps the circulatory systems of the fetus and mother separate, but as a semipermeable membrane permits the exchange of some materials between them
umbilical cord
a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta
cephalocaudal development
development that happens from head to toe
proximodistal development
development happens from inward out
habituation
a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
teratogens
external agents that can cause damage or death during prenatal development
sensitive period
the period of time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors; prenatally, the sensitive period is when the fetus is maximally sensitive to the harmful effects of teratogens
does-response relation
a relation in which the effect of exposure to an element increases with the extent of exposure
autostimulaiton theory
the idea that brain activity during REM sleep in the fetus and newborn facilitates the early development of the visual system
Neurons
cells that are specialized for sending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body as well as within the brain itself
cell body
a component of the neuron that contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning
dendrites
a component of the neuron
neural fibers that receive input from other cells and conduct it toward the cell body int eh form of electrical impulses
axons
a component of the neuron
neural fibers that conduct electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
synapses
microscopic junctions between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendritic branches or cell body of another
glial cells
cell in the brain that provide a variety of critical supportive functions
myelin sheath
a fatty sheath that forms around certain axons in the body and increases the speed and efficiency of information transmission.
Glial cells produce the myelin sheath
cerebral cortex
the “gray matter” of the brain that plays a primary role in what is thought to be particularly humanlike functioning from seeing and hearing to writing to feeling emotions
Lobes
major areas of the cortex associated with general categories of behavior
occipital lobe
primarily involved in visual recognition and the processing of visual information
temporal love
the lobe of the cortex that is associated with memory, visual recognition and the processing of emotion and auditory information
parietal lobe
governs spatial processing as well as integrating sensory input with information stored in memory
frontal lobe
associated with organizing behavior
the one that is thought responsible for the human ability to plan ahead
association areas
parts of the brain that lie between the major sensory and motor areas and the process and integrate input from those areas
cerebral hemispheres
the two halves of the cortex
for the most part, sensory input from one side of the body goes to the opposite hemisphere of the brain
corpus callosum
a dense tract of nerve fibers that enable the two hemispheres of the brain to communicate
cerebral laterization
the specialization of the hemispheres of the brain for different modes of processing
neurogeneisis
the proliferation of neurons through cell division
spines
formations of the dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrites’ capacity to form connections with other neurons
myelination
the formation of myelin around the axons of neurons that speeds and increases information processing
synaptogenesis
the process by which neurons from synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections
synaptic pruning
the normal developmental process through which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
plasticity
the capacity of the brain to be effected by experience.
Less information needs to be encoded in the genes
Half of the genetic code is for the nervous system, combines nature and nurture
experience-expectant plasticity
the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of general experiences that every human who inhabits any reasonably normal environment will have
is accompanied by vulnerability if the expected experience is not available development will be impaired
(Vision and auditory skills)
experience-dependent plasticity
the process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of an individual’s experiences (language)
Sensitive period
specific time periods when the human brain is especially sensitive to particular kinds of stimuli
Particularly important for experience-expectant information and experiences
Secular trends
marked changes in physical development that have occurred over the generations
failure to thrive
a condition in which infants become malnourished and fail to grow or gain weight for no obvious medical reason
constructivist
children actively construct knowledge
adaptation
the tendency to respond to the demands of the environment to meet one’s goals
organization
the tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge
assimilation
the process by which people translate incoming information into a form that fits concepts they already understadn
accommodation
the process byw hich people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences
equilibriation
the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understandings
Sensorimotor stage
Birth- 2 years
infants know the world through their senses and through their actions
Lack object permanence
Object permanence
the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
a not b error
the tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden
deferred imitation
the repetition of other people’s behavior a substantial time after it originally occured
preoperational stage
2 - 7 years
toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world though language and mental imagery
symbolic representation
the use of one object to stand for another
egocentrism
the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view
centration
the tendency to perceive the world solely from one’s own point of view
conservation concept
the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties
concrete operational change
7-12 years
children become able to think logically, not just intuitively. They now can classify objects into coherent categories and understand that events are often influenced by multiple factors, not just one.
Children consider multiple dimensions
Formal Operational Stage
12 + years
adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is. This allows them to understand politics, ethics and science fiction as well as to engage in scientific reasoning
Information Processing Theory
emphasis on nature and nurture
emphasis on how change occurs
Children are active learners and problem solvers and undergo continuous cognitive change
task analysis
the research technique of identifying goals, relevant information in the environment and potential processing strategies for a problem
structure
the basic organization of the cognitive system including its main components and their characteristics
processes
the specific mental activities such as rules and strategies, that people use to remember and to solve problems
Problem solving
the process of attaining a goal by using a strategy to overcome an obstacle
Rehearsal
a problem solving strategy
the process of repeating information over and over to aid memory of it
selective attention
a problem solving strategy
the process of intentionally focusing on the information that is most relevant to the current goal
Selective attention
the process of intentionally focusing on the information that is most relevant to the current goal
Overlapping waves theory
an information-processing approach that emphasizes the variability of children’s thinking
Sensory memory
the fleeting retention of sights, sounds and other sensations that have just been experienced
long-term memory
information retained on an enduring basis
working memory
a kind of workspace in which information from sensory memory and long-term memory is brought together, attended to and processed
basic processes
the simplest and most frequently used mental activities
association, recognizing, recalling and generalizing
encoding
the process of representing in memory information that draws attention or is considered important
core-knowledge theories
approaches that emphasize the sophistication of infants’ and young children’s thinking in areas that have been important throughout human evolutionary history
Nature gives you the specialized learning mechanisms and some understanding of crucial concepts
Children strive to organize knowledge
Some aspects of development are continuous and others are more stage-like
domain specificity
core-knowledge theories
nature gives you the specialized learning mechanisms but are limited to a particular area (living things, people)
Children’s informal theories
they identify fundamental units for dividing up all objects and events into a few basic categories
They explain many phenomena in terms of a few fundamental principals
they explain events in terms of unobservable causes
sociocultural theories
approaches that emphasize that other people and surrounding culture contribute to children’s development
Nature gives you learning processes but interactions with others play an important role
Emphasis on interactions with others
Continuous, quantitative changes
Guided participation
a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn
Cultural tools
interactions with others
the innumerable products of human ingenuity that enhance thinking
intersubjectivity
interactions with others
the mutual understanding that people share during communication
joint-attention
interactions with others
a process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
social scaffolding
a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own
dynamic systems theories
a class of theories that focus on how change occurs over time in complex systems Nature gives you motivation to explore and learn about the environment Emphasis on interactions with the social world Continuous, quantitative changes
private speech
children develop their self regulation and problem-solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, mush as their parents did
Internalization-of-thought process
Vygotsky
Stage 1: children’s behavior is controlled by other people’s statements
Stage 2: children’s behavior is controlled by private speech
Stage 3: children’s behavior is controlled by their own whispers or silent lip movements
