Test 3 Flashcards
1
Q
requirements for living organisms
A
acquire resources, eliminate waste, exchange metabolic gasses, homeostasis, control function, development, reproduce
2
Q
What makes an animal an animal？
A
eukaryotic, multi-cellular, aerobic, heterotrophic. Usually mobile, complex, and engage in sexual reproduction. cells divide by cleavage and carbs stored as glycogen or fat.
3
Q
When did multicellular organisms arise on earth?
A
about 700 mil years ago. Life has been on earth 3 1/2 billion years
4
Q
multi-cellularity limitations
A
must form complex mechanisms for resource and waste exchange with their environment.
5
Q
Why do animals urinate?
A
unlike plants, animals make copious metabolic waste and must eliminate it through different methods like urination.
6
Q
What causes animals to have different sizes and shapes
A
environmental conditions. waste/resource exchange, physics for swimming, burrowing, or flight, competition, physical environment such as thin air or cold temperatures, etc.
7
Q
interstitial fluid
A
water-based solution that surrounds organ systems and cells and provides place for transport.
8
Q
organism hierarchical organization
A
cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
9
Q
structure=
A
function!
10
Q
4 major tissue types
A
connective tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
11
Q
epithelial tissue
A
covers body surfaces and lines internal organs. base of apical cells attached to basement membrane. can be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.
12
Q
Connective tissues
A
cells held in a fibrous or fluid extra-cellular matrix. Subtypes include: loose, adipose, fibrous, cartilage, bone, and blood
13
Q
loose connective tissue (ct)
A
bind and shape
14
Q
adipose ct
A
store fat
15
Q
fibrous ct
A
strong connections
16
Q
cartilage ct
A
cushions
17
Q
bone
A
support system; movement
18
Q
blood
A
connect tissues to resources
19
Q
muscle tissue
A
composed of cells that can contract. 3 types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth
20
Q
skeletal tissue
A
enable movement, attached to bones by tendons. voluntary
21
Q
cardiac tissue
A
forms the heart, involuntary
22
Q
smooth/visceral
A
not striated, surrounds digestive tract and other organs, involuntary
23
Q
nervous tissue
A
transmits messages throughout body with electrical impulses
24
Q
organs
A
composed of two or more types of tissues organized into a functional unit.
25
body cavities
fluid filled spaces that cushion and suspend organs. Often layers of connective tissue and sheets of muscle
26
11 major organ systems
digestive, circulatory, respiratory, immune, excretory, nervous, muscular, reproductive, endocrine, skeletal, integumentary
27
bioenergetics
flow of energy through an animal. controlled by energy sources vs. energy uses. metabolic rates vary based on activity, size, and homeostatic + thermoregulation strategies.
28
metabolic rate increases as
body size decreases
29
homeostasis
maintenance of constant internal conditions; usually via negative feedback
30
conformers
do not maintain steady internal conditions; internal values vary with external conditons
31
thermoregulation
2 main strategies: ectothermy and endothermy.
32
cost and benefits to ectothermy
activity and endurance limited but low energy cost
33
why was development of endothermy an important adaptation to the colonization of land
moving on land requires more energy and land temp fluctuates more than water temp, so endothermy is ideal for terrestrial survival
34
strategies to adjust rate of heat exchange
constriction or dilation of blood vessels, raising fur or feathers, fat accumulation, countercurrent heat exchange, behaviors
35
countercurrent exchange
arterial blood is warmer and warms adjacent venous blood in extremities
36
behaviors for thermoregulation
moving to shade/sun or into/out of water. restricting activity to day/night, migrating, social behavior to share heat
37
adjusting metabolic rate
increasing/decreasing muscular activity, acclimation, torpor
38
Acclimation
adjust to temp changes throughout seasons by changing enzyme quantity and type and altering lipids to keep membranes fluid
39
torpor
reaction to predictable temp and food supply fluctuations by entering state of reduced metabolism (hibernation, etc.)
40
the cellular metabolism of __________ will produce nitrogenous waste
proteins, nucleic acids, ATP
41
what percent of basal metabolic rate is used for osmoregulation in most environments
5%
42
Marine animal osmoregulation
water will move out of animal, so they must drink lots of water and excrete little urine. gain solutes due to diffusion gradient, which is filtered out by kidney (C, Mg, sulfates) or transport proteins on skin (Na, Cl) most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers and are isotonic to seawater. Osmoconformers actively regulate solute concentrations to maintain homeostasis.
43
freshwater animal osmoregulation
water will enter animal through osmosis and must excrete large volumes of urine. many maintain lower cytoplasm solute concentrations than marine regulators to help reduce solute gradient. Urine loss depletes solutes, so active transport at gills replenishes some solutes. Some animals like salmon can switch environments and strategies.
44
extreme dehydration can cause some animals to become
dormant
45
water balance in terrestrial animals
terrestrial animals have adaptations to reduce water loss. Solutes are regulated primarily by the excretory system.
46
terrestrial adaptations to water loss
waxy cuticle, shells and scales, layers of dead skin cells, fur to insulate, eating wet food, retaining metabolic water, small respiratory openings.
47
sodium/potassium pump
metabolic energy is used to transport (2) K+ into the cell and (3) Na+ out, producing an electrochemical gradient. The cell interior becomes more negative than outside.
48
Na/Cl/K cotransporter
uses sodium/potassium gradient to move sodium, chloride, and potassium into the cell.
49
Selective Ion channels
allow passive diffusion of chloride and potassium out of the cell.
50
nitrogenous waste
metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids releases nitrogen in form of ammonia, which is highly toxic b/c it raises pH.
51
ammonia and pH
ammonia is a strong base and readily acquires hydrogen to become ammonium. this proton reduction raises pH which can disrupt enzyme function.
52
how aquatic animals deal with nitrogenous waste
excrete ammonia or ammonium directly across skin or gills. freshwater fish lose ammonia in their urine as well.
53
how terrestrial animals deal with nitrogenous waste
use metabolic energy to convert ammonia to urea b/c they cannot tolerate inherent water loss in ammonia excretion.
54
Osmoregulation and excretion in invertebrates
earliest invertebrates still rely on diffusion (jellies, sponges). most have some variation on a tubular filtration system that filters, selectively reabsorbs and secretes, and excretes.
55
protonephridia
system of tubules spread throughout body with beating cilia at the closed end of the tube to draw in interstitial fluid. solutes are reabsorbed before urine is excreted either through protonephridia or through skin.
56
metanephridia in earthworms
tubules collect body fluid through a ciliated opening from one segment and excrete from the adjacent segment. Hydrostatic pressure facilitates collection. Vascular tubules reabsorb solutes and maintain water balance and N waste is excreted in dilute urine
57
malphigian tubules in insects and other terrestrial arthropods
system of closed tubules using ATP powered pumps to transport solutes from hemolymph. water goes into tubules due to gradient. N waste and other solutes diffuse into the tubules on their gradients and passes into digestive tract (uric acid and digestive waste excreted from same opening). Solutes and water are reabsorbed in rectum using ATP powered pumps.
58
Osmoregulation and excretion in vertebrates
have a system of tubules called nephrons in a pair of kidneys. Each nephron is vascularized and drains into a series of ducts that drain urine to external environment.
59
basics passage of human excretory system
kidneys filter blood and concentrate the urine, ureter drains to bladder, bladder stores, and urethra drains to external environment.
60
nephron structure
each nephron stars at a cup-shaped closed end leading into the proximal convoluted tubule in the cortex of kidney. Loop of Henle descends into medulla of kidney, then distal tubule drains into collecting duct.
61
filtration in corpuscle
arterial blood enters (and leaves) glomerulus under pressure. glomerulus is surrounded by bowman's capsule. Interior epithelium of bowman's has finger-like processes that produce slits so water, solutes, and N waste can enter. Large proteins and red blood cells are too large and remain in arteriole. Anything small enough to pass makes up initial filtrate
62
Proximal tubule
Secretion: excess H+; helps maintain body pH. drugs and other toxins also secreted into filtrate. Proximal tubule epithelia also makes NH3 to neutralize filtrate
Reabsorption: water, NaCl, K, glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate, vitamins
63
secretion
substances are transported from blood into a tubule
64
reabsorption
substances are transported from filtrate back into the blood
65
Loop of Henle
differences in membrane permeability set up osmotic gradients that recover water and salts, and concentrates the urine. Composed of 3 parts: the descending limb, the thin ascending limb, and the thick ascending limb.
66
descending limb
permeable to water and impermeable to solutes. water is recovered because of increase in solutes in the surrounding interstitial fluids
67
thin ascending limb
not permeable to water, very permeable to Na and Cl. These solutes are recovered through passive transport to help maintain interstitial fluid gradient.
68
thick ascending limb
Na and Cl continued to be recovered by active transport. This is high metabolic cost but helps maintain the gradient that concentrates urea in the urine.
69
distal tubule
filtrate entering contains mostly urea and other wastes. Na, Cl, and water continue to be reabsorbed. Some secretion also occurs
70
collecting duct
final concentration of urine occurs as filtrate passes down collecting duct and back through the concentration gradient in the interstitial fluid of kidney. Some salt is actively transported and far end of collecting duct is permeable to urea. Urea trickles out into inner medulla to establish and maintain concentration gradient
71
what process generates ATP
aerobic respiration
72
first, second, and third resort for ATP generation
1. carbohydrates
2. fats
3. proteins
73
essential nutrients
molecules that animals cannot make, must be eaten. includes some amino acids, some fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals
74
amino acids are used to make
proteins. Most animals can only synthesize about half of the necessary amino acids and the remaining must be consumed
75
vitamin function
water soluble usually function as coenzymes and fat soluble usually function in nutrient absorption and antioxidants. fat soluble vitamins are more likely to accumulate
76
food compartmentalization
prevents digestive substances from reaching other organs. Earliest containment structures are food vacuoles. Simplest body plans have a digestive sac with one opening and more complex animals have a digestion tube with 2 openings.
77
food compartmentalization
prevents digestive substances from reaching other organs. Earliest containment structures are food vacuoles. Simplest body plans have a digestive sac with one opening and more complex animals have a digestion tube with 2 openings.
78
jellies and flatworms digestion
starts digestion in gastrovascular cavities; finish in food vacuoles
79
advantage of 2 hole tube body plan
no mixing of incoming food and outgoing waste
80
advantage of 2 hole tube body plan
no mixing of incoming food and outgoing waste. Allows for specialization and efficiency
81
advantage of 2 hole tube body plan
no mixing of incoming food and outgoing waste. Allows for specialization and efficiency
82
oral cavity function
teeth cut and grind, tongue mixes and pushes bolus to back. Saliva lubricates food, protects mouth lining, buffers pH, kills bacteria, and begins digestion of carbs
83
epiglottis
tips down to direct food from pharynx to esophagus.
84
esophagus
peristaltic contractions in esophagus push food to stomach. Sphincter muscles also control passage of food
85
pharynx and esophagus
peristaltic contractions in esophagus push food to stomach. Sphincter muscles also control passage of food
86
stomach
stores and mixes food with muscle contractions. lining secretes gastric juice w/ about pH of 2 that dissolves cell matrices and denatures food; kills bacteria. pepsin begins protein hydrolysis. stomach lining protected by mucus and secretion of inactive pepsin precursor.
87
ulcer
stomach lesion; causes include stress, diet, heredity, microbial infections
88
ulcer
stomach lesion; causes include stress, diet, heredity, microbial infections
89
small intestine
completes digestion (most in first 25 cm) and absorbs monomers. More than 6m long. Most absorption occurs in the latter 5.75m
90
pancreas
secretes enzymes and bicarbonate; liver secretes bile
91
monomer transportation route
cross into epithelial cells, then into interstitial fluid, then into lymph or bloodstream. some transport is facilitated, some active
92
fat digestion
hydrophobic so cant cross membrane until broken down (emulsified) by bile salts so that lipase can digest and produce fatty acids and monoglycerids. Monomers are called micelles to diffuse. They are recombined into fats in the epithelial cells where they mix with cholesterol and are coated with proteins. The resulting globules are transported into the lymph and eventually blood.
93
fat digestion
hydrophobic so cant cross membrane until broken down (emulsified) by bile salts so that lipase can digest and produce fatty acids and monoglycerids. Monomers are called micelles to diffuse. They are recombined into fats in the epithelial cells where they mix with cholesterol and are coated with proteins. The resulting globules are transported into the lymph and eventually blood.
94
intestinal blood vessels drain into
hepatic portal vein. nutrients get sent straight to liver for metabolic processing
95
where will levels of blood sugar and other nutrients vary the most
hepatic portal vein
96
large intestine
connected to small intestine at T junction. Functions to absorb water, also houses both commensal and mutualistic bacteria to live on undigested materials and produce important vitamins (K, B, folic acid, biotin)
97
cecum
functions as fermentation chamber, especially herbivores.
98
appendix
may function to repopulate intestines with beneficial bacteria after intestinal infections
99
rectum
final section of large intestine. Feces produced and stored in rectum. 40% dry weight of feces is bacteria. Eliminated through anus through sphincters. One is voluntary and one is involuntary.
100
rectum
final section of large intestine. Feces produced and stored in rectum. 40% dry weight of feces is bacteria. Eliminated through anus through sphincters. One is voluntary and one is involuntary.
101
dentition
different tooth shapes for different eating habits. Carnivores have sharper teeth while herbivores have flatter teeth
102
herbivores often have longer
small intestines
103
Calcium function
bones and teeth; nerve and muscle movement
104
phosphorous function
bones and teeth, ATP, nucleic acids, membranes
105
sulfur function
in some amino acids
106
potassium function
pH and solute balance, nerve function
107
chlorine function
pH and solute balance, nerve function
108
sodium function
pH and solute balance, nerve function
109
magnesium function
enzyme cofactor
110
Iron function
hemoglobin, e- carrier, enzyme cofactor
111
why are animals aerobic
oxygen required to support mobility and maintain body temp
112
primitive gas exchange
entirely through diffusion, process is slow. Used in jellies, flatworms, and sponges
113
why is diffusion not adequate for large 3d animals?
surface area to volume ratio becomes too small
114
open circulatory system
in most invertebrates. Hemolymph is pumped into a cavity instead of through veins and arteries. Returned to vessels via ostia.
115
Ostia
pores that draw in the fluid as the heart relaxes in open circulatory systems
116
closed circulatory system
separate blood and interstitial fluid. blood is contained within vessels and exchange occurs by diffusion in capillary beds. Are more effective and maintain higher pressure than open systems
117
veins carry blood to
atria
118
arteries carry blood from
ventricles
