Test 3 Flashcards
What is the physical and perceptual definition of sound?
Physical: Sound is PRESSURE CHANGES in the air
Perceptual: Sound is the EXPERIENCE we have when we hear
__ causes a slight increase in the density of molecules near the diaphragm and results in a local increase in the air pressure above atmospheric pressure. __ decreases the density of air molecules and causes a slight decrease in air pressure
Condensation; rarefaction
A __ occurs when changes in air pressure occur in a pattern described by a mathematical function called a sine wave
Pure tone
A vibration can be described by noting its __-the number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat, and its __-the size of the pressure change
Frequency; amplitude
__ are pure tones with frequencies that are WHOLE NUMBER multiples of the fundamental frequency i.e. 2,3,4
Higher harmonics
__ is the perceptual quality most closely related to the level or amplitude of an auditory stimulus which is expressed in decibels
Loudness
The __ indicates the threshold for hearing versus frequency, indicates that we can hear sounds between 20 Hz and 20,0000 Hz (most sensitive: 2k-4k Hz)
Audibility curve
__ is the perceptual quality we describe as “high” or “low” and it can be defined as the property of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds may be ordered on a musical scale
Pitch
Notes with the same letter have the same __
Tone chroma
__ is the quality that distinguishes between two tones that have the same loudness, pitch, and duration, but still sound different
Timbre
__ are sounds that have sound waves that do not repeat. Examples: door slamming shut, people talking, static on a radio not tuned to a station
Aperiodic
Sound waves first pass through the outer ear, which consists of the __ and the __
Pinna; auditory canal
The auditory canal’s recess and wax protects the __
Tympanic membrane / eardrum
__ occurs in the auditory canal when sound waves that are reflected back from the closed end of the auditory canal interact with sound waves that are entering the canal
Resonance
The frequency reinforced the most is called the __ of the canal
Resonant frequency
The middle ear (a small cavity) contains the __, the three smallest bones in the body
Ossicles
The __, (also known as the hammer), is set into vibration by the tympanic membrane to which it is attached, and transmits its vibrations to the __ (or anvil), which then transmits its vibrations to the inner ear by pushing on the membrane covering the __
Malleus; incus; stapes, oval window
The __ contains the hair cells which are the receptors for hearing
Organ of Corti
The __ and __ play crucial roles in activating the hair cells
Basilar membrane; tectorial membrane
The __, are thin processes that protrude from the tops of the hair cells, which bend in response to pressure changes
Cilia
What happens when cilia are bent to the right?
Tip links are stretched and ion channels are OPENED (then, (K+) ions enter the cell)
What happens when cilia move to the left?
The tip links slacken, and the channels CLOSE
The property of firing at the same place in the sound stimulus is called __
Phase locking
The connection between the frequency of a sound stimulus and the timing of the auditory nerve fiber firing is called __
Temporal coding
The __, states that the frequency of a sound is indicated by the PLACE along the cochlea at which nerve firing is highest
Place theory of hearing
What is a tonotopic map?
An orderly map of frequencies along the length of the cochlea
The action of the outer hair cells is called the __
Cochlear amplifier
The way the cochlea separates frequencies along its length has been described as a(n) __
Acoustic prism
__ is caused by hair cell damage resulting from the cumulative effects over time of noise exposure, the ingestion of drugs that damage hair cells, and age-related degeneration
Presbycusis
__ occurs when loud noises cause degeneration of the hair cells
Noise-induced hearing loss
If you turn up volume on your music player, you are exposing yourself to what hearing professionals call __
Leisure noise
other sources include: recreational gun use, riding motorcycles, playing instruments, etc.
The position of sound that extends from left to right is the __
Azimuth
The position of sound which extends up and down is the __
Elevation
__ use information reaching both ears to determine the azimuth (left-right position) of sounds
Binaural cues
The two binaural cues are __ and __
1) Interaural time difference
2) Interaural level difference
What is the interaural time difference?
The difference between when a sound reaches the left ear and when it reaches the right ear
What is the interaural level difference?
The difference in the sound pressure level of the sound reaching the two ears
A __ is a cue that depends on information from only one ear
Monaural cue
What is the cone of confusion?
When there are many pairs of points on a cone that have the same left-ear distance and right-ear distance, therefore resulting in the same ILD and ITD
The primary monaural cue for localization is called a __, because the information for localization is contained in differences in the distribution (or spectrum) of frequencies that reach each ear from different locations
Spectral cue
After the ear molds were removed, what was the result of the localization performance?
Localization remained excellent immediately after removal of the ear molds
- because training with the molds created a new set of correlations between spectral cues and location, but the old correlation was still there too
ITD is best for __ frequencies, ILD for __ frequencies, and spectral cues work best for judging __ especially at higher frequencies
Low; high; elevation
__ are structures below the cerebral cortex where auditory nerve fibers from the cochlea synapse in a sequence of them
Auditory nerve fibers
The __ is also known as the auditory receiving area (A1) in the temporal lobe of the cortex
Primary auditory cortex
How does the auditory pathway show the auditory signals? SONIC MG:
- Superior olivary nucleus
- Inferior colliculus
- Medial geniculate nucleus
What does the Jeffress model of auditory localization propose?
Neurons are wired together so they each receive signals from the two ears
What is coincidence detector?
Neurons only fire when both signals coincide by arriving at the neuron simultaneously
One way to describe the properties of ITD neurons is to measure __, which plot the neuron’s firing rate against the ITD
ITD tuning curves
In audition, the __ pathway is responsible for IDENTIFYING sounds, whereas the __ pathway is responsible for LOCATING sounds
What; where
The sound reaching your ears directly (along path 1) is called __; the sound reaching your ears later (along paths 2,3,4) is called __
Direct sound; indirect sound
What is the precedence effect?
We perceive the sound as coming from the source that reaches our ears first
- basically, we perceive sound as coming from its source rather than from many different directions at once
__ is the study of how sounds are reflected in rooms, it is largely concerned with how indirect sound changes the quality of the sounds we hear in rooms
Architectural acoustics
What are the major factors affecting indirect sound?
- The size of the room
- The amount of sound that is absorbed by the walls, ceiling, and floor
__ is a representation of a familiar melody that is stored in a person’s memory
Melody schema
When you tap your foot to the music, you are tapping the beat. The underlying beat of the music is called the __
Metrical structure
Phillips-Silver and Trainor concluded that the crucial factor that causes movement to influence the perception of metrical structure is stimulation of the __- the system that is responsible for balance and sensing the position of the body
Vestibular system
__ occurs because all of the sounds in the environment are combined
Auditory scene analysis
All the combinations of hearing and other senses are examples of __
Multisensory interactions
The __ is an example of vision dominating audition. It occurs when sounds coming from one place (the ventriloquist’s mouth) appear to come from another place (the dummy’s mouth)
Ventriloquism effect or visual capture
The __ occurs when a single flash is accompanied by two tones and the subject perceives two flashes
Two-flash illusion
The __ senses are responsible for perceptions such as touch and pain that are usually caused by stimulation of the skin
Cutaneous
__ is the ability to sense the position of the body and lims
Proprioception
__ is the ability to sense the movement of the body and limbs
Kinesthesis
The layer of dead cells is part of the outer skin which is called the __, and below it is another layer called the __
Epidermis; dermis
__ are receptors within the skin that respond to mechanical stimulation such as pressure, stretching, and vibration
Mechanoreceptors
The __ shows that adjacent areas of the skin project to adjacent areas in the brain, and that some areas on the skin are represented by a disproportionately large area of the brain
- Latin for “little main”
Homunculus
__ is the ability to detect details on the skin
Tactile acuity
The classic method of measuring tactile acuity is the __, which is the minimum separation between two points on the skin that when stimulated is perceived as two points
Two-point threshold
__ is measured by pressing a grooved stimulus onto the skin and asking the person to indicate the orientation of the grating
Grating acuity
__ are provided by relatively large surface elements, such as bumps and grooves, that can be felt both when the skin moves across the surface elements and when it is pressed onto the elements
- it results in feeling different shapes, sizes, and distributions of these surface elements
Spatial cues
i.e. perceiving a coarse texture such as Braille dots
__ occur when the skin moves across a textured surface like fine sandpaper. It provides information in the form of vibrations
Tempora cues
__ is the perception in which 3-dimensional objects are explored with the fingers and hand
Haptic perception
__ is caused by damage to tissue or inflammation of joints or by tumor cells
Inflammatory pain
__ is caused by lesions or other damage to the nervous system
Neuropathic pain i.e. carpal tunnel syndrome (caused by repetitive tasks such as typing, spinal cord injury, brain damage due to stroke)
__ is pain caused by activation of receptors in the skin that are specialized to respond to tissue damage or potential damage
Nociceptive pain i.e. heat, chemical, severe pressure, and cold
__ = pain occurs when nociceptor receptors in the skin are stimulated and send their signals directly from the skin to the brain
Direct pathway model of pain
__ is when people who have had a limb amputated continue to experience the limb
Phantom limbs
The __ begins with the idea that pain signals enter the spinal cord from the body and are then transmitted from the spinal cord to the brain. It proposes that there are additional pathways that influence the signals sent from the spinal cord to the brain
Gate control model
The reference to both sensory and emotional experience reflects the __
Multimodal nature of pain
When people describe their pain with words like ‘throbbing, prickly, hot, dull’ they are referring to the __, when they use words like ‘torturing, annoying, frightful sickening’ they are referring to the __
Sensory component of pain; affective (or emotional) component of pain
The perception of pain is accompanied by activation of a number of different areas of the brain. All these areas taken together are called the __
Pain matrix
__ is a condition in which stimulation of one modality (like vision) results in an experience in another modality (like touch)
Synesthesia
The fibers from the tongue, mouth, and throat make connections in the brain stem in the __
Nucleus of the solitary tract
__ make up the taste buds, and there are a number of them for each bud
Taste cells
__ are located on the tips of the taste cells. There are different ones for different chemicals. They cause transduction by affecting ion flow across the membrane of the taste cell
Receptor sites
Another finding in line with specificity theory is the effect of presenting a substance called __, which blocks the flow of sodium into taste receptors
Amiloride
Like taste, the sense of smell, or __, provides information that can be important for survival
Olfaction
Many animals are __ (having a keen sense of smell that is important to their survival), whereas humans are __ (having less keen sense of smell)
Macrosmatic; microsmatic
__ is the loss of the ability to smell as a result of injury or infection
Anosmia
The __ is a dime-sized region located on the roof of the nasal cavity just below the olfactory bulb
Olfactory mucosa
When an olfactory receptor responds, the concentration of calcium ions (Ca++) increases inside the ORN. One way of measuring this increase in calcium ions is called __
Calcium imaging
The pattern of activation for each odorant, which is indicated by reading across each row, is called the odorant’s __
Recognition profile
The location of thw two main olfactory areas are:
1) The piriform cortex, which is the primary olfactory area
2) Orbitofrontal cortex, which is the secondary olfactory area
The orbitofrontal cortex contains many __, neurons that respond to MORE THAN ONE sense
Bimodal neurons
Taste and olfaction unlocked memoryes one hadn’t thought of for years, it is called __
Proust effect
