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test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

elaboration

A

the meaning of a particular concept and relating it to prior knowledge and interconnected concepts already mastered

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2
Q

distinctiveness

A

one memory trace should be different from all other memory traces people tend to forget info. if it’s not different from other memory traces in their LTM

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3
Q

self-reference effect

A

you enhance LTM by relating it to your own experiences

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4
Q

encoding specificity

A

recall is often better if the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time when your retrieval will be tested

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5
Q

total time hypothesis

A

the amount of info. you learn depends on the total time you devote to learning

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6
Q

distributed-practice effect

A

you will remember more material if you spread your learning trails over time (spaced learning) you’ll remember less if you try cramming by learning all the material at once (massed learning)

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7
Q

desirable difficulties

A

a learning situation that is somewhat challenging but not to difficult

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8
Q

testing effect

A

being tested on material also increases memory for information helps to boost your long-term recall

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9
Q

mnemonics

A

mental strategies designed to improve your memory

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10
Q

mnemonics using imagery (keyword method)

A

you identify a keyword that sound similar to the new word you want to learn, then you create a mental image that links the key word to the new word. Can be used to remember names

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11
Q

memory strategy

A

when you preform mental activities that can help improve your encoding and retrieval most help you remember something you learned in the past

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12
Q

divided attention

A

when you try to pay attention to 2 or more simultaneous messages, responding appropriately to each message, both your speed and accuracy suffer

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13
Q

levels-of-processing

A

you will recall information more accurately if you process it on a deep level rather than a shallow level

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14
Q

mnemonics using organization

A

try to bring systematic order to the material you want to learn uses deep processing to sort items into categories

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15
Q

chunking

A

when we combine several units into larger units, eases the demands on working memory

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16
Q

hierarchy

A

a system where you arrange items in a series of classes from the most general to the most specific

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17
Q

narrative technique

A

making up stories that link a series of words together

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18
Q

first letter technique

A

you take the first letter of each word and then compose a word or a sentence from those letters like ROY G. BIV for the colors of the rainbow

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19
Q

prospective memory

A

when you remember you need to do something in the future

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20
Q

mental imagery

A

refers to the mental representation of stimuli when those stimuli are not physically present in the environment relying upon LTM to create internal mental images

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21
Q

visual imagery

A

mental representation of visual stimuli

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22
Q

auditory imagery

A

the mental representation of auditory stimuli

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23
Q

mental rotation of images

A

Shepard and Metzler’s research - showed that more reaction time is needed to rotate an object 160 degrees rather than rotating it a mere 20 degrees

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24
Q

analog code

A

a representation that closely resembles a physical object

mental imagery is a close relative of perception

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25
propositional code
an abstract, language-like representation storage is neither visual or spatial and it does not physically resemble the original stimuli mental imagery is a close relative of language
26
Stephen Kosslyn
one of the most important researchers in the field of mental imagery
27
distance and shape effects on visual imagery
Kosslyn and colleagues showed that people took a long time to scan the distance between 2 points on a mental image of a map that they created. people quickly scanned the distance between 2 nearby points on a mental image of that map (1978)
28
visual imagery and interference
your mental image can interfere with an actual physical image
29
episodic memory
focuses on your memories for events that happened to you personally, includes events from 10 years to 10 minutes ago
30
semantic memory
your organized knowledge about the world, including your knowledge of words and other facts
31
explicit memory tasks
you are asked to remember some information that you previously learned tests your memory directly most common test is recall includes recognition tasks in which you must identify which items on a list have been presented at an earlier time --directly instructs participant to remember information
32
implicit memory tasks
tests your memory indirectly shows the effects of previous experience that creep out automatically-- during your normal behavior asks people to perform a cognitive task that does not directly ask for recall or recognition
33
autobiographical memory
your memory for events and issues related to yourself
34
sensory memory
large - capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonably accuracy
35
schema
your general knowledge or expectations, which are taken from your past experiences with someone or something the gist of the situatiom
36
consistency bias
how we tend to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint
37
source monitoring
the process of trying to remember the origin of a particular memory
38
reality monitoring
when you try to determine if an event really happened or if you just imagined it
39
flashbulb memory
your memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising event such as hearing about JFK of 9/11 term first introduced by Roger Brown and James Kulik (1977)
40
eyewitness testimony
requires people to remember specific details about people and events, mistakes are likely
41
3 influences on eyewitness testimony
1) people have trouble recognizing a person from another ethnic group 2) memory schemas can alter a witness's testimony 3) people may believe they really witnessed something when it has been suggested to them in a different situation
42
post-event misinformation effect
when people are given misleading information about an event, later on they recall the misleading information, rather than the actual event
43
retrograde amnesia
a loss of memory for events that occurs before the brain damage
44
anterograde amnesia
loss of the ability to create new memories for events that have happened after the accident
45
amnesia
people have severe deficits in their episodic memory | usually stems from brain damage
46
H.M.
had surgery for epilepsy after could not learn or retain new memories did have memories of before surgery
47
hippocampus
a structure underneath the cortex that is important in many learning and memory tasks
48
proactive interference
when you have trouble recalling new material because of previously learned old material keeps interfering with new memories
49
retroactive interference
when you have trouble recalling old material because some recently learned , new material keeps interfering
50
constructivist approach to memory
emphasizes that we construct knowledge by integrating new information with what we know
51
5 factors effecting accuracy of eyewitness testimony
1) Stress of situation 2) long delay between event and recall 3) if misinformation is plausible 4) more error if there is social pressure 5) more error when given positive feedback
52
relationship between memory confidence and; memory accuracy
people's confidence about their testimony is not strongly correlated with accuracy of their testimony often people are as confident about misinformation-based memories as they are about correct memmories
53
Pollyanna Principle
states that pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items
54
recall of neutral stimuli
usually recalled least accurately of all | more accurate if paired with positive stimuli
55
recall of negative stimuli
over time more unpleasant memories fade more than pleasant memories
56
schema
knowledge of information about familiar situations, behavior, and other "packages" of things we know. generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation, an event or a person the gist of things
57
script
is a simple, well-structured sequence of events in a specified order this script is associated with a highly familiar activity
58
life script
is a list of events that person believes would be most important throughout their lifetime
59
schema and memory selection | schema-inconsistent
we sometimes show better recall for material that violates our expectations when the material is especial vivid or surprising
60
schema and memory selection | schema-consistent
we will remember things that should be there even when they were not there ex. seeing a stapler on a desk when there wasn't one there
61
schema and memory selection | schema-irrelevant
when don't notice things that are inconsistent with the way we think things should be ex. a picnic basket in a office
62
4 things that effect schema and memory selection
1) if the information describes a minor events--and time is limited--people tend to remember information accurately when it is consistent with a schema 2) if the information describes a minor--event and time is limited--people do not remember information that is inconsistent with the schema 3) people seldom create a false memory for a lengthy event that did not occur 4) when the information describes a major event that is inconsistent with the standard schema, people are likely to remember that event
63
abstraction
a memory process that stores the meaning of a message, rather than the exact words
64
constructive model of memory
people integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas
65
pragmatic view of memory
people pay attention to a message that is most relevant to their current goals
66
memory intergration
our background knowledge encourages us to take in new information in a consistent fashion
67
theme 1
cognitive processes are active, rather than passive
68
theme 2
cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate
69
theme 3
cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information
70
theme 4
cognitive processes are interrelated with one another, they do not operate in isolation
71
theme 5
many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing

learning and cognition (3 decks)

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