Test 3 Flashcards
What are the parts of a nucleotide?
sugar, phosphate, Nitrogen base (A,T,C,G)
Which pair of bases has 2 hydrogen bonds?
Adenine, Thymine
Which pair of bases has 3 hydrogen bonds?
Guanine, Cytosine
How are the strands of DNA made up?
They have: a chain of deoxyribose and phosphates, with bases attached to the deoxyribose
Between what two bases does bonding occur?
A hydrogen bond occurs between two bases
What is a complementary DNA strand?
The strand that directs the “complement” strand to synthesize a series of complement bases
What is the duplication of DNA?
- make a copy of the DNA
- chromosomes are now double-stranded
- This occurs in the S phase of Interphase
- Copy of DNA can now be passed on to new cells as single stranded chromosomes!
What is the process of DNA replication?
- H bonds between bases unzips
- This forms 2 single strands, and each strand serves as a template
- Forms 2 new complementary strands exactly like the beginning
How is DNA semi-conservative?
DNA has 1 parent strand and 1 daughter strand (one original and one new)
What is the chemistry and make up of RNA?
- sugar (ribose)
- Phosphate
- 4 bases (A,U,G,C)
RNA is single stranded!!
What are the three kinds of RNA?
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
What is mRNA?
(messenger RNA)
long chain of bases which carries messages from DNA
They are read 3 base pairs at a time (codon)
What is rRNA?
(ribosomal RNA)
Combines with protein to form ribosomes
It makes two subunits (one larger and one smaller) to form structural protein
What is tRNA?
(transfer RNA)
Picks up an amino acid at one end
Has an anticodon at the other end
Then pairs with a codon in mRNA
How do RNA and DNA differ?
RNA uses ribose sugar, instead of deoxyribose, which has -H attached to the second ring
DNA is responsible for storing and transferring genetic information, while RNA directly codes for amino acids and acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins
What are the steps for Transcription (converting DNA)?
- Starts with DNA in the nucleus because DNA is too big to leave
- DNA unzips a portion
- mRNA reads unzipped DNA
- Uracil in mRNA bonds with Thyamine
- mRNA unzips and moves into cytoplasm
mRNA takes DNA slightly changes it, and takes it into the cytoplasm
What is Translation?
Takes mRNA message and convert into proteins
- mRNA moves to cytoplasm
- attached to ribosome (rRNA) in cytoplasm (RNA is the structure where this occurs)
- mRNA codon determines which amino acid on the tRNA bonds
- tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon
- Amino acids from tRNA connect together by peptide bonds and MAKES PROTEIN
What are the subunits in a ribosome?
The subunits are Large and Small
In ribosomes, what does the Large subunit do?
The Large units contains the active site of the ribosome and creates the new peptide bonds when protein is synthesized
In ribosomes, what do Small subunits do?
The small subunit is in charge of information flow during protein synthesis. It reads mRNA and makes sure that each codon is properly paired up with its anticodon in tRNA
What is a plasmid?
A small extra piece of DNA that is used to carry DNA into other cells (vectors)
How are plasmids used in genetics?
They are where we insert changed DNA, which can change some of the make up of an organism
What is bacterial DNA?
Plasmids that have less DNA and fewer genes and lack a nucleus
What are restriction enzymes used for?
Used to cut and paste pieces of plasmids or bacterial DNA and look for a certain pattern in ATCG to find where to cut
How do restriction enzymes function?
Made from viruses
Cut pieces of bacterial DNA
insert piece into DNA of another organism
What is a PCR machine used for?
Determines DNA sequence
How does cloning take place?
Remove DNA from unfertilized egg cell
Insert DNA from an adult organism
Implant in uterus
Results in genetically identical individual
How does DNA finger printing work?
Every individual has unique portions of their DNA which can be located and compared to others’ DNA
DNA hybridization
Taking DNA from 2 individuals and see how well two “unzipped” strands pair up
often used for parentage
What is the Human Genome Projects
Wants to find and identify and map all of our genes
What is Gene Therapy?
Inserting recombined genes in a patient’s DNA
Often used for genetic diseases and birth defects
What is Genetic Engineering?
Inserting DNA from another organism using plasmids to create a Genetically Modified Organism
Bacteria+human insulin gene
mice+bacteria
soybeans/corn
GMO examples
What is the hierarchy of organization
Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Organisms
What is Histology?
The study of tissues (make up organs)
What is anatomy?
The study of the structures in our body, which includes organs and organ systems
What is Physiology?
The study of how our body functions
ex: what happens in a heart attack
What are the 4 basic types of tissues?
Connective tissue
Muscle
Nervous
Epithelial
Epithlial
few layers- outer layer is dead Protection and physical barrier Aids in secretion and absorption Had squamous- blood vessels, heart Has cubodial-kidney tissues
Connective tissues
(1) Has loose (soft) and (2)dense tissues
(3) Adipose tissues store fat
(4) Cartilage tissues provide strength
What is lose (soft) tissue?
cells spread out in the matrix and has fibers and fibroblasts
What is dense (hard) tissue?
cells tightly packed together
Nervous tissues
Neurons
conducts electrical impulses
converts into chemical at synapse
found in brain, spinal cord
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
smooth
skeletal
cardiac
What is smooth muscle tissue?
It contracts and lengthens and is inside blood vessels, stomach and is needle shaped
What is skeletal muscle tissue?
It moves skeleton and is striated and attaches to skeleton by tendons
What is cardiac muscle tissue?
striated with intercalary disks. Contrations move materials
What are the advantages to sexual reproduction
increases genetic diversity
creates genetically unique individual
greater chance offspring survive in new environment
Where is testosterone produced?
Testes. Produces sex hormones
Where is estrogen and progesterone produced?
Ovary. Produces eggs and developing females
Where does fertilization occur?
Fallopian tubes
What is the difference between growth and development?
growth makes more cells by cell division
development is how changes occur during a lifetime and is the specialization of tissues, organs and organ systems
What are the processes of growth and development?
Gamete formation: Meiosis Fertilization Clevage Blastula Gastrulation Organ formation
What is cleavage?
Its when the cells divide, but it increases the number of cells, not size
What is the difference between morula and blastula?
Morula is a solid ball of 16 cells
Blastula is a ball of cells with a hollow center and more than 16 cells
What is gastrulation?
It is a gastrula or an early embryo
the cells push inward and results in 3 germ layers that form different tissues and organs
