Test 3

Question 1

~Toddlerhood~
Between:
Each toddler:
In general:

Answer 1

Period between 1 and 3 years of age

Each toddler has his or her own lexicon, or personal dictionary, with words that reflect, in part, the child’s environment.

In general, a toddler talks about the world he or she knows.

Create matches between objects and actions in the world and the language that describes them

Question 2

~First Word~

Answer 2

The emergence of first words or verbalizations does not signal the end of babbling, jargon, & phonetically consistent form (PCF)

To be considered a true word:
– The child’s utterance must have a phonetic relationship to some adult word
– The child must use the word consistently
– The word must occur in the presence of a referent, thus implying an underlying concept or meaning

Question 3

~Hypothesis of Concept formation for lexicons~
Semantic Feature:
Functional Core:

Answer 3

Semantic feature:
– Child combines features (e.g., shape, size, taste, smell, sound, visual perception)
– These are static perceptual features
– Matures over time as child gains exposure to more finite
features

Functional core:
– Word is based on function of object or thing (e.g., fork – you use it to eat)
– These are features that include movement or action, not static referents

Question 4

~Hypothesis of Concept formation for lexicons~
Associative complex/prototype complex:

Answer 4

Associative complex/prototype complex:
– A core word for an object has a general meaning
– As features are added the words become more diverse but relate to the core word
– Vocabulary increases as the understanding of the differences are realized.

Question 5

~How is prosody facilitated~

Answer 5

-1st develop a flat/level contour for naming or labeling

-13 - 15 months develop a rising contour to request, for attention & curiosity & high falling contour for surprise, recognition, insistence, or greeting

-Next - use a high rising and high rising/falling contour to signal playful anticipation & stress

-Finally - ~18 months, use a falling/rising & rising/falling contour for warnings & playfulness

-As children mature, the frequency of different intentions changes

Question 6

~Gestures- 18 months~

Answer 6

-Vocabulary production related to the child’s ability to make functional gestures.

-Functional gestures depict object’s function – pretending to eat from an empty spoon

-Multiword utterance development correlated production of gestural combinations

-Child increasingly gestures & verbalizes while looking at communication partner

Question 7

~Toddler lexicons~
Over half of words:
Most words contain:

Answer 7

-Over 1⁄2 of of words consist of CV or CVCV
-Most words contain 3 or fewer sounds
-Front & back consonants are most frequent
-First 10 words usually name animals, foods, toys

Question 8

~Toddler Lexicon~
Nouns:

Answer 8

-Nouns (~60%) predominate in the 1st 100 words – They are perceptual and/or conceptual

-Verbs acquired slowly
– modifiers appear first e.g., down

-Prepositions after the first 400 words

-18 months – single meaning words
– if a word means X it cannot mean Y or Z

-Context bound words before age 2
– less dominant as child reaches age 2

Question 9

~How words are acquired~
Receptive Vocabulary:
Fast Mapping:

Answer 9

-Receptive vocabulary 4X as large as expressive vocabulary (12-18 months)

Fast Mapping: learn novel words with just a few incidental exposures
– Lexical representation from brief exposure to the novel word links it to its referent
 follow another’s gaze & pointing
 engage in joint attention
 imitate actions
 voice direction, body posture
 make inferences about other’s intentions

Question 10

~Overextension~
Categorical:
Analogical:
Relational:

Answer 10

-Children use words in an overly general manner
-3 major kinds of overextensions made by toddlers:

– Categorical: extend a known word to other words in the same category

– Analogical: extend a known word to other words that are perceptually similar

– Relational: extend a known word to other words that are semantically or thematically related

-Overgeneralize about 1/3 of new words
– Calling all men daddy

Question 11

~Phonological Processes~
DEF:

Answer 11

-Phonological processes are used by children to make adult words easier to pronounce
– each child’s ability is constantly changing
– some words are produced consistently, others vary

Question 12

~Phonological Processes~
Children use differing phonological processes:
Most frequent phonological process:

Answer 12

Children use differing phonological processes:
– reduplication (e.g., baba)
– diminutives (e.g., duckie)
– assimilation (duck changes to guck)
– consonant cluster reductions (e.g., tar for star)
– final consonant deletion (open syllables predominate) (e.g., cu for
cup)

Most frequent phonological process
– Under 30 months = consonant cluster reduction
– Consonant cluster reduction is a syllabic phonological process
 Syllabic processes decrease dramatically > age 2 < age 3

Question 13

~Pragmatics Overview~
Childs conversations:
Number of turns:

Answer 13

 child’s conversation concerns the immediate context
conversations are short, number of turns limited initially to 1-2 turns
most conversations occurs between mother&child
 mothers talk about specific past events (e.g.,the zoo) and future routine events (e.g., upcoming bath time)
 scaffolding and increased cognitive abilities and knowledge enable conversation about non-present referents
 monologs may account for20-30% of the utterances of 4-year-olds.
 The pre-sleep monologs of many children are rich with songs, sounds, nonsense words, bits of chitchat, verbal fantasies, and expressions of feelings.

Question 14

~Conversation–Register~
Def:

Answer 14

-Assuming various roles requires different styles of speaking called registers.
 The ability to play various family roles appears early in play.
-pitch & loudness are 1st variations to denote differing roles
-politeness, softer tone, more indirect requests

Later MLU & choice of topics & vocabulary used
-Girls assume more roles, speak more & modify their register to fit roles

Question 15

~Conversation– 2 year olds~

Answer 15

 provide some descriptive details to aid comprehension of listener
 uses pronouns without identifying person to which they refer
 alternating pattern of conversations dominant
 use questions to initiate or continue exchange
 use nonverbal communication for requests 1/4 of time
 do not respond to requests for clarification consistently
 bilingual children often switch languages to match their partner
 use attention-getting words with gestures and rising intonation but often unsuccessful
 begin to tell fictional narratives between 2 & 3

Question 16

~Conversation–3 year olds~

Answer 16

 > in talkativeness
 acknowledges turns with fillers (e.g, un huh)
 + Boys, - girls use “no” to correct peer’s behavior
 Girls use no to reject/deny peer’s idea
 3/4 of a child’s utterances are on topic
 Repetition is 1 tactic to remain on a topic
 able to determine amount of info listener needs & adjusts message
 begins to use modal auxiliary verbs in indirect requests (Could you give me a…), permissive directives (Can/may I have a…) & question begins a directive (May I have a….)
 can distinguish between definite (the) and indefinite (a) articles

Question 17

~Conversation– 5 year olds~

Answer 17

 ~50% can sustain topics for a dozen turns
 motivated to seek causal information
 cloak intentions & use indirect requests
 uses be and do when speaking about state, attitude, or feeling
 understands wish, guess, and pretend
 use of explanations & justifications,
 still rely on gestures for some interpretation
 use yes/no questions
 70% of utterances for control & statements

Question 18

What is conversational repair?

Answer 18

 in response to a facial expression of non comprehension we clarify
 intended message is compared with sentence output
 Stalls are pauses or interruptions that add or change nothing to the linguistic structure being produced
-may result from planning problems, difficulty retrieving a lexical item, or from covert speech repairs

Question 19

What are Narratives?

Answer 19

~Oral narratives/stories are an uninterrupted stream of language modified by the speaker to capture and hold the listener’s interest

 Narratives include self-generated stories; telling of familiar tales; retelling of books, movies, or television shows & recounting personal experiences.

Conversations are dialogs, while narratives are essentially decontextualized monologs.

 Decontextualization means that the language does not center on some immediate experience within the context.

 Skills begin to emerge between18-24 months

Question 20

~Narratives~
Speaker must be able to:
By age 3:

Answer 20

 Narratives are descriptions of entire events based on a framework of scripts.

Speaker must be able to:
 describe single events
 event combinations
 relationships of/to events
 significance of each event

 By age 3, children are able to describe chains of events within familiar activities, such as birthday parties.

Question 21

~Semantic Development~

Answer 21

 child adds approximately 5 words to his/her lexicon every day between the ages of 18 months & 6 years
 Word meanings are inferred without direct teaching by adults.
 Children may use two principles to establish meanings:
 Contrast - assumption that every form (morpheme,
word, syntactic structure) contrasts to every other in
meaning
 Conventionality - expectation that certain forms will be used to convey certain meanings

Question 22

~Phases of Word Learning~
Fast Mapping:
Slow Mapping:

Answer 22

Fast Mapping:
 Enables a child to infer a connection between a word and it’s referent after only 1 exposure.
 A related phenomenon has been referred as QUIL (Quick Incidental Learning).

Slow Mapping:
 It is the process of enriching lexical-semantic representations after a word is fast mapped into memory.
 It is enriched through increased frequency of exposure and/or richer quality of exposure.

Question 23

~Relational Words~
Early Question Forms:

Answer 23

 Interrogatives acquisition order  Early question forms include
1. what & where
2. who, whose & which,
3. when, how & why.

 Even young school-age children have difficulty answering some forms of wh-questions that they seem to comprehend.
 Causal, or why-type, questions may be especially difficult for a preschool child because of the reverse- order thinking required in the response.

Question 24

~Relational Words~
Temporal:

Answer 24

Temporal (timing) word acquisition order
 1. Order (after & before)
 2. Duration (since & until)
 3. Simultaneity (while)
 Initially produced as prepositions then as conjunctions joining clauses.

 When meaning is unknown young preschoolers rely on the order of mention.
 older preschool & some school-age children reflect a syntax to determine meaning
 otherwise relies on knowledge of real-life sequences

Question 25

~Relational Words~
Physical Words– development of conversation:

Answer 25

 Physical words – related to the development of conservation – an understanding of “amount”
 learns that the terms are opposites
 then the dimensions/ characteristics to which term refers
 The positive member of each relational pair represents the
presence of the entity that it describes and is learned first beginning at age 2

 The ability to make same/different judgments is related
 hard/soft; large/small
 more/less; same/different

Question 26

~Relational Words~
Relationships/ kinships:

Answer 26

 At first a child treats kinship terms as part of the person’s name (Uncle Eric)

 Next, a child gains some features of the person but not of the relationship.
 A child gains a few of the less complex relationships first (e.g.,grandma)
 Complexity may be thought of as the number of shared features( 6aunts)
 By 4, a child may understand what a brother or sister is but doesn’t realize that he or she can also be a brother or sister to someone else; the term is not
used reciprocally.
Most of the major kinship terms are understood by age 10

Question 27

~Bilingual Acquisition~

Answer 27

 nonsimultaneous language acquisition is related to a learner’s attitude toward & identity with users of the language being acquired, literacy in the home & his/her attitude toward the 1st language & culture
 When children learn two languages successively, they seem to go through easily recognizable stages.
 1st stage, a child uses L1 in L2 environment.
 2nd (nonverbal) stage (weeks or months) child gains receptive knowledge but uses gestures instead of expressive language

Question 28

~Mean Length of Utterance- MLU~
Average is taken of:
Preschool language development is measured in:

Answer 28

• The average is taken of the morphemes in a series of 50 to 100 utterances.
• An utterance may be a sentence or a shorter unit of language that is signaled by
  
  • A drop in voice
  • A breath
  • A pause
• Preschool language development is measured in morphemes.
• Each sentence or unit of language is tallied by the number of morphemes.
  
  • e.g., my mommy’s car – 4 morphemes [mommy + ‘s signaling possessive = 2 morphemes]
  • e.g., when daddy coming home – 5 morphemes [come + ing = 2 morphemes]
  • e.g., I ate lunch – 3 morphemes

MLU= total number of morphemes/ total number of utterances

Question 29

~Mean Length of Utterance~
MLU is:
From age 18 months to 5 years:
MLU is a:
Used during:

Answer 29

• MLU is a moderate predictor of language complexity of young English‐ speaking children; it is sensitive only to language developments that increase utterance length.
• From age 18 months to 5 years, MLU increases by approximately 1.2 morphemes per year.
• MLU is a quantitative value used to describe language development in language disorders.
• Used during assessments and to determine progress.

Question 30

~Mean Length of Utterance~
By age 5:

Answer 30

• Most typically developing children develop adult forms of sentences types by age 5.

Question 31

~Bound Morphemes~
U meaning:

Answer 31

• Morphological learning is characterized by U‐shaped developmental growth.
• The U‐shape represents correct production and comprehension, errors, and then correct use.
• Some morphemes are multifunctional, as in markers used for plural, possessive, and third person –s.
• Mothers provide an immediate comparison of immature utterances and the adult form.
• At an MLU of 2.0 to 2.5, bound morphemes begin to appear.

Question 32

~Noun Phrase Development~
Age 2:
Age 3:
Age 4:

Answer 32

A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single syntactic unit that is less than a sentence. It does NOT contain both the subject and the predicate
.
* At age 2, children learn that adjectives and articles do not precede pronouns or proper nouns.
* By age 3, most children produce NP elaboration with the addition of each of the major elements
determiner, adjective, and post‐noun modifier
* The first post‐noun modification appears at age 3 with adverb words, as in “This here.”

• By age 4, a child adds quantifiers, demonstratives, and post‐noun prepositional phrases.
  
  • Embedded clauses appear in the post‐noun position shortly thereafter.
• NPs act as the noun or serve the function in a sentence.
• NP elaborations usually occur when nouns are in isolation rather than in longer utterances.

Question 33

~Verb Phrase Development~
Age 2:
30 months:
40 months:
42 months:
46 months:

Answer 33

• There is a correlation between maternal verb use variety and a child’s development of verbs.
• A VP includes the verb and all that follows, including noun phrases.
• Children produce simple transitive verbs/phrases to describe activities performed with objects.
• intransitive verb are used and will make sense without an object
• A small subset of irregular past tense verbs appear by age 2.
• Auxiliary or helping verbs first appear in their negative form (can’t, don’t, won’t) at 30 months.
• True auxiliary verbs appear later, including be, can, do, and will.
• By 40 months the modal auxiliaries could, would, should, must, and might appear in negatives
  and interrogatives.
• Most children have the auxiliaries do, have, and will by age 42 months.
• By 46 months, a child masters both the regular and irregular past tense in most contexts.

Question 34

What to expect as children learn speech sounds:

Answer 34

• The preschool child uses phonologic processes for consistent speech performance.
• Because a child’s perception does not mirror that of an adult, initial production also differs.
• The child considers the adult model to be correct and monitors productions for comparison.
• A child does not master all speech sounds.
• Phonological acquisition and rules related to morphological acquisition are not
  mastered until school age.
• The processes of assimilation, and of consonant and syllable deletion, are very
  common.
• All aspects of language and language development are intertwined and interdependent.