Test 3 Flashcards
~Toddlerhood~
Between:
Each toddler:
In general:
Period between 1 and 3 years of age
Each toddler has his or her own lexicon, or personal dictionary, with words that reflect, in part, the child’s environment.
In general, a toddler talks about the world he or she knows.
Create matches between objects and actions in the world and the language that describes them
~First Word~
The emergence of first words or verbalizations does not signal the end of babbling, jargon, & phonetically consistent form (PCF)
To be considered a true word:
– The child’s utterance must have a phonetic relationship to some adult word
– The child must use the word consistently
– The word must occur in the presence of a referent, thus implying an underlying concept or meaning
~Hypothesis of Concept formation for lexicons~
Semantic Feature:
Functional Core:
Semantic feature:
– Child combines features (e.g., shape, size, taste, smell, sound, visual perception)
– These are static perceptual features
– Matures over time as child gains exposure to more finite
features
Functional core:
– Word is based on function of object or thing (e.g., fork – you use it to eat)
– These are features that include movement or action, not static referents
~Hypothesis of Concept formation for lexicons~
Associative complex/prototype complex:
Associative complex/prototype complex:
– A core word for an object has a general meaning
– As features are added the words become more diverse but relate to the core word
– Vocabulary increases as the understanding of the differences are realized.
~How is prosody facilitated~
-1st develop a flat/level contour for naming or labeling
-13 - 15 months develop a rising contour to request, for attention & curiosity & high falling contour for surprise, recognition, insistence, or greeting
-Next - use a high rising and high rising/falling contour to signal playful anticipation & stress
-Finally - ~18 months, use a falling/rising & rising/falling contour for warnings & playfulness
-As children mature, the frequency of different intentions changes
~Gestures- 18 months~
-Vocabulary production related to the child’s ability to make functional gestures.
-Functional gestures depict object’s function – pretending to eat from an empty spoon
-Multiword utterance development correlated production of gestural combinations
-Child increasingly gestures & verbalizes while looking at communication partner
~Toddler lexicons~
Over half of words:
Most words contain:
-Over 1⁄2 of of words consist of CV or CVCV
-Most words contain 3 or fewer sounds
-Front & back consonants are most frequent
-First 10 words usually name animals, foods, toys
~Toddler Lexicon~
Nouns:
-Nouns (~60%) predominate in the 1st 100 words – They are perceptual and/or conceptual
-Verbs acquired slowly
– modifiers appear first e.g., down
-Prepositions after the first 400 words
-18 months – single meaning words
– if a word means X it cannot mean Y or Z
-Context bound words before age 2
– less dominant as child reaches age 2
~How words are acquired~
Receptive Vocabulary:
Fast Mapping:
-Receptive vocabulary 4X as large as expressive vocabulary (12-18 months)
Fast Mapping: learn novel words with just a few incidental exposures
– Lexical representation from brief exposure to the novel word links it to its referent
follow another’s gaze & pointing
engage in joint attention
imitate actions
voice direction, body posture
make inferences about other’s intentions
~Overextension~
Categorical:
Analogical:
Relational:
-Children use words in an overly general manner
-3 major kinds of overextensions made by toddlers:
– Categorical: extend a known word to other words in the same category
– Analogical: extend a known word to other words that are perceptually similar
– Relational: extend a known word to other words that are semantically or thematically related
-Overgeneralize about 1/3 of new words
– Calling all men daddy
~Phonological Processes~
DEF:
-Phonological processes are used by children to make adult words easier to pronounce
– each child’s ability is constantly changing
– some words are produced consistently, others vary
~Phonological Processes~
Children use differing phonological processes:
Most frequent phonological process:
Children use differing phonological processes:
– reduplication (e.g., baba)
– diminutives (e.g., duckie)
– assimilation (duck changes to guck)
– consonant cluster reductions (e.g., tar for star)
– final consonant deletion (open syllables predominate) (e.g., cu for
cup)
Most frequent phonological process
– Under 30 months = consonant cluster reduction
– Consonant cluster reduction is a syllabic phonological process
Syllabic processes decrease dramatically > age 2 < age 3
~Pragmatics Overview~
Childs conversations:
Number of turns:
child’s conversation concerns the immediate context
conversations are short, number of turns limited initially to 1-2 turns
most conversations occurs between mother&child
mothers talk about specific past events (e.g.,the zoo) and future routine events (e.g., upcoming bath time)
scaffolding and increased cognitive abilities and knowledge enable conversation about non-present referents
monologs may account for20-30% of the utterances of 4-year-olds.
The pre-sleep monologs of many children are rich with songs, sounds, nonsense words, bits of chitchat, verbal fantasies, and expressions of feelings.
~Conversation–Register~
Def:
-Assuming various roles requires different styles of speaking called registers.
The ability to play various family roles appears early in play.
-pitch & loudness are 1st variations to denote differing roles
-politeness, softer tone, more indirect requests
Later MLU & choice of topics & vocabulary used
-Girls assume more roles, speak more & modify their register to fit roles
~Conversation– 2 year olds~
provide some descriptive details to aid comprehension of listener
uses pronouns without identifying person to which they refer
alternating pattern of conversations dominant
use questions to initiate or continue exchange
use nonverbal communication for requests 1/4 of time
do not respond to requests for clarification consistently
bilingual children often switch languages to match their partner
use attention-getting words with gestures and rising intonation but often unsuccessful
begin to tell fictional narratives between 2 & 3
~Conversation–3 year olds~
> in talkativeness
acknowledges turns with fillers (e.g, un huh)
+ Boys, - girls use “no” to correct peer’s behavior
Girls use no to reject/deny peer’s idea
3/4 of a child’s utterances are on topic
Repetition is 1 tactic to remain on a topic
able to determine amount of info listener needs & adjusts message
begins to use modal auxiliary verbs in indirect requests (Could you give me a…), permissive directives (Can/may I have a…) & question begins a directive (May I have a….)
can distinguish between definite (the) and indefinite (a) articles
~Conversation– 5 year olds~
~50% can sustain topics for a dozen turns
motivated to seek causal information
cloak intentions & use indirect requests
uses be and do when speaking about state, attitude, or feeling
understands wish, guess, and pretend
use of explanations & justifications,
still rely on gestures for some interpretation
use yes/no questions
70% of utterances for control & statements
What is conversational repair?
in response to a facial expression of non comprehension we clarify
intended message is compared with sentence output
Stalls are pauses or interruptions that add or change nothing to the linguistic structure being produced
-may result from planning problems, difficulty retrieving a lexical item, or from covert speech repairs
What are Narratives?
~Oral narratives/stories are an uninterrupted stream of language modified by the speaker to capture and hold the listener’s interest
Narratives include self-generated stories; telling of familiar tales; retelling of books, movies, or television shows & recounting personal experiences.
Conversations are dialogs, while narratives are essentially decontextualized monologs.
Decontextualization means that the language does not center on some immediate experience within the context.
Skills begin to emerge between18-24 months
~Narratives~
Speaker must be able to:
By age 3:
Narratives are descriptions of entire events based on a framework of scripts.
Speaker must be able to:
describe single events
event combinations
relationships of/to events
significance of each event
By age 3, children are able to describe chains of events within familiar activities, such as birthday parties.
~Semantic Development~
child adds approximately 5 words to his/her lexicon every day between the ages of 18 months & 6 years
Word meanings are inferred without direct teaching by adults.
Children may use two principles to establish meanings:
Contrast - assumption that every form (morpheme,
word, syntactic structure) contrasts to every other in
meaning
Conventionality - expectation that certain forms will be used to convey certain meanings
~Phases of Word Learning~
Fast Mapping:
Slow Mapping:
Fast Mapping:
Enables a child to infer a connection between a word and it’s referent after only 1 exposure.
A related phenomenon has been referred as QUIL (Quick Incidental Learning).
Slow Mapping:
It is the process of enriching lexical-semantic representations after a word is fast mapped into memory.
It is enriched through increased frequency of exposure and/or richer quality of exposure.
~Relational Words~
Early Question Forms:
Interrogatives acquisition order Early question forms include
1. what & where
2. who, whose & which,
3. when, how & why.
Even young school-age children have difficulty answering some forms of wh-questions that they seem to comprehend.
Causal, or why-type, questions may be especially difficult for a preschool child because of the reverse- order thinking required in the response.
~Relational Words~
Temporal:
Temporal (timing) word acquisition order
1. Order (after & before)
2. Duration (since & until)
3. Simultaneity (while)
Initially produced as prepositions then as conjunctions joining clauses.
When meaning is unknown young preschoolers rely on the order of mention.
older preschool & some school-age children reflect a syntax to determine meaning
otherwise relies on knowledge of real-life sequences
~Relational Words~
Physical Words– development of conversation:
Physical words – related to the development of conservation – an understanding of “amount”
learns that the terms are opposites
then the dimensions/ characteristics to which term refers
The positive member of each relational pair represents the
presence of the entity that it describes and is learned first beginning at age 2
The ability to make same/different judgments is related
hard/soft; large/small
more/less; same/different
~Relational Words~
Relationships/ kinships:
At first a child treats kinship terms as part of the person’s name (Uncle Eric)
Next, a child gains some features of the person but not of the relationship.
A child gains a few of the less complex relationships first (e.g.,grandma)
Complexity may be thought of as the number of shared features( 6aunts)
By 4, a child may understand what a brother or sister is but doesn’t realize that he or she can also be a brother or sister to someone else; the term is not
used reciprocally.
Most of the major kinship terms are understood by age 10
~Bilingual Acquisition~
nonsimultaneous language acquisition is related to a learner’s attitude toward & identity with users of the language being acquired, literacy in the home & his/her attitude toward the 1st language & culture
When children learn two languages successively, they seem to go through easily recognizable stages.
1st stage, a child uses L1 in L2 environment.
2nd (nonverbal) stage (weeks or months) child gains receptive knowledge but uses gestures instead of expressive language
~Mean Length of Utterance- MLU~
Average is taken of:
Preschool language development is measured in:
- The average is taken of the morphemes in a series of 50 to 100 utterances.
- An utterance may be a sentence or a shorter unit of language that is signaled by
- A drop in voice
- A breath
- A pause
- Preschool language development is measured in morphemes.
- Each sentence or unit of language is tallied by the number of morphemes.
- e.g., my mommy’s car – 4 morphemes [mommy + ‘s signaling possessive = 2 morphemes]
- e.g., when daddy coming home – 5 morphemes [come + ing = 2 morphemes]
- e.g., I ate lunch – 3 morphemes
MLU= total number of morphemes/ total number of utterances
~Mean Length of Utterance~
MLU is:
From age 18 months to 5 years:
MLU is a:
Used during:
- MLU is a moderate predictor of language complexity of young English‐ speaking children; it is sensitive only to language developments that increase utterance length.
- From age 18 months to 5 years, MLU increases by approximately 1.2 morphemes per year.
- MLU is a quantitative value used to describe language development in language disorders.
- Used during assessments and to determine progress.
~Mean Length of Utterance~
By age 5:
- Most typically developing children develop adult forms of sentences types by age 5.
~Bound Morphemes~
U meaning:
- Morphological learning is characterized by U‐shaped developmental growth.
- The U‐shape represents correct production and comprehension, errors, and then correct use.
- Some morphemes are multifunctional, as in markers used for plural, possessive, and third person –s.
- Mothers provide an immediate comparison of immature utterances and the adult form.
- At an MLU of 2.0 to 2.5, bound morphemes begin to appear.
~Noun Phrase Development~
Age 2:
Age 3:
Age 4:
A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single syntactic unit that is less than a sentence. It does NOT contain both the subject and the predicate
.
* At age 2, children learn that adjectives and articles do not precede pronouns or proper nouns.
* By age 3, most children produce NP elaboration with the addition of each of the major elements
determiner, adjective, and post‐noun modifier
* The first post‐noun modification appears at age 3 with adverb words, as in “This here.”
- By age 4, a child adds quantifiers, demonstratives, and post‐noun prepositional phrases.
- Embedded clauses appear in the post‐noun position shortly thereafter.
- NPs act as the noun or serve the function in a sentence.
- NP elaborations usually occur when nouns are in isolation rather than in longer utterances.
~Verb Phrase Development~
Age 2:
30 months:
40 months:
42 months:
46 months:
- There is a correlation between maternal verb use variety and a child’s development of verbs.
- A VP includes the verb and all that follows, including noun phrases.
- Children produce simple transitive verbs/phrases to describe activities performed with objects.
- intransitive verb are used and will make sense without an object
- A small subset of irregular past tense verbs appear by age 2.
- Auxiliary or helping verbs first appear in their negative form (can’t, don’t, won’t) at 30 months.
- True auxiliary verbs appear later, including be, can, do, and will.
- By 40 months the modal auxiliaries could, would, should, must, and might appear in negatives
and interrogatives. - Most children have the auxiliaries do, have, and will by age 42 months.
- By 46 months, a child masters both the regular and irregular past tense in most contexts.
What to expect as children learn speech sounds:
- The preschool child uses phonologic processes for consistent speech performance.
- Because a child’s perception does not mirror that of an adult, initial production also differs.
- The child considers the adult model to be correct and monitors productions for comparison.
- A child does not master all speech sounds.
- Phonological acquisition and rules related to morphological acquisition are not
mastered until school age. - The processes of assimilation, and of consonant and syllable deletion, are very
common. - All aspects of language and language development are intertwined and interdependent.
