Test 1 Flashcards
Language Definition:
Socially shared code that uses a conventional system of arbitrary symbols to represent ideas about the world that are meaningful to others who know the same code
Characteristics of Language
LANGUAGE IS SOCIALLY-SHARED
-Shared by members of a community.
-Language community shares a common
language
-Emerge from geographical circumstances, sociological regions, or economic reasons
-change and evolve = generative
LANGUAGE IS A CODE THAT USES A SYSTEM OF ARBITRARY SYMBOLS
-Code utilizing a set of symbols, specifically morphemes.
-Morphemes: smallest grammatical units of language that carry meaning; combined to create words.
-Relationship between words and their referents is arbitrary
THE LANGUAGE CODE IS CONVENTIONAL
-Specific, systematic, and rule-governed conventions that remove the randomness from language
-Rules govern the way a particular linguistic community arranges sound into words and words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.
Characteristics of language cont.
Onset
Suppressible
universals
-onset is predictable – typical
development is the same worldwide.
-not suppressible – typically developing children will learn to talk from an adult model
-has universals – it is structured within principles of cognition; components of language (e.g. grammar rules, social rules) are consistent across cultures
Model of Speech Production
Stage 1: Perceptual Event
-Initiated with a mental, abstract representation of the speech stream to be produced.
-Abstract representation is the language code and provides a PERCEPTUAL TARGET of what is to be produced by speech
-Code is represented at the level of the phoneme.
Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.
~Model of Communication~
Feedback:
~Types of Feedback~
Linguistic Feedback:
Extralinguistic Feedback:
Nonlinguistic:
Paralinguistic:
Metalinguistic:
Feedback: information provided by the receiver to the sender
~Types of Feedback~
Linguistic Feedback: speaking/listening, writing/reading, signing
Extralinguistic Feedback:
Nonlinguistic: eye contact, facial expression, body movement, posture & proximity
Paralinguistic: use of pitch, loudness, and pausing, stress, and intonation Metalinguistic: the ability to reflect on, talk about, analyze, judge & separate content from its context
~Components of Content, Form and Use~
Content= semantics
Form= phonology, morphology, syntax
Use= pragmatics
~Content~
Semantics:
Semantics: Govern the meaning of individual words and word combinations.
~Form~
Phonology:
Morphology:
Syntax:
Phonology: sound units & sequences
Morphology : words and word beginnings (e.g., un, non) or word endings (e.g., -s, -ed)
Syntax : word order and relationships
~Use~
Pragmatics:
Pragmatics: Govern how language is used for social purposes
Dialects Definition:
◦ Variations that reflect intricate language patterns & rich cultural history
◦ Everyone speaks a dialect of a language
◦ These differences are not considered negative or positive
~General American English~
Formal:
Informal:
◦Formal: applies to written language and formal speaking situations, found in grammar texts
◦Informal: relies on grammatical structure & semantics, not pronunciation patterns (phonology)
1st Word Criteria:
Three components that make a “true” word:
-Word uttered with clear intention and purpose ( e.g says “doggie” while petting a dog
-Have a recognizable pronunciation (PCF=Phonetically Consistent Form)
“doddie” for “doggie”
-One that a child uses consistently and in contexts beyond the original context (e.g. says “doggie” while petting a dog, says doggie while looking at a picture of a dog.
Rate of Acquisition
-First 5 to 7 years of life are a critical period (or sensitive period) for language development
-“Window of opportunity” during which language develops most rapidly and with the greatest ease
Morphology:
Free:
Bound:
- Morphology is the internal organization of
words - Morphemes are the smallest grammatical
units
– they have meaning
– they cannot be divided
Free or bound:
– free: are independent and can stand along
– bound: are grammatical markers that CANNOT
function independently
~The study of language development~
Background knowledge:
Individuals who study language development:
- Interest in language development represents a part of a larger concern for human development.
- Studying language development can help us understand our own behavior.
- Language‐development studies examine the relationship between language and thought.
- Individuals who study language include linguists, psycholinguists, sociolinguists, behavioral psychologists, and speech-language pathologists.
4 major theories:
New approach:
- Behavioral
- Syntactic
- semantic‐cognitive
- Sociolinguistic
- A new approach, Emergentism, answers some concerns expressed about the initial four.
~Structure by Use Focus: Social Interaction~
Who:
Factors:
LASS:
- Bruner and Vygotsky
– Vygotsky: also called constructionism
*Both biology and environment are factors
- Language acquisition support structure (LASS) allows children to learn language as a result of social interactions
*child’s attempts prompt caregivers to interact
~zone of proximal development are opportunities to help children make progress
*as interactions mature more skills are acquired
~Structure by Use:
Social Interaction~
*Children will imitate communication and interactions as often as presented
* Language structure emerges from language use
*Structure is a means of accomplishing intent
– grammar leads to understanding
- Parentese builds language in incremental steps
allowing child to gain skills
– short simple sentences with prosodic patterns directs attention
– use of questions and feedback
~Pragmatic Focus/ speech act~
3 acts:
- Searle
*context of language influences meaning & how language serves different functions for speakers in varying circumstances
*a child learns to use words to get things done - Every speech act consists of 3 acts
– locutionary act – the utterance- subject (referring expression
- predicate (predicating expression
– illocutionary act - motive or purpose of utterance
– perlocutionary act – effects the listener; was the message received as intended
~Language Acquisition Device~
- Chomsky developed theory
- all humans are born with a LAD
– mostly left hemisphere
– universal; across all languages of the world
– contains information about the rules of a language - babies are preprogrammed to learn but nurture provides the trigger
Neuroscience-
Neuroanatomy-
Neurophysiology-
Human nervous system=
Central nervous system-
Peripheral nervous system-
Neuroscience: branch of science that focuses on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system
Neuroanatomy: anatomy of the nervous system
Neurophysiology: physiology of the nervous system
Human nervous system = central nervous system + peripheral nervous system
– Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord
– Peripheral nervous system: cranial and spinal nerves that carry information inward to and outward from the brain and spinal cord
~Nuerons~
Nuerons def-
-carry ____
-Grey matter:
-White matter:
Neurons: billions of highly specialized cells that make up the nervous system
– Carry electrical-chemical nerve impulses
– Grey matter: cell bodies of neurons and the dendrites; where information is generated and processed
– White matter: carries information among grey matter
4 Neuron Components:
cell body-
axon-
presynaptic terminal-
dendrites-
– Cell body: center of the neuron, containing its nucleus
– Axon: single efferent nerve extension which carries nerve
impulses away from the cell body
– Presynaptic terminal: distal end of each terminal branch; sites at which the axonal connection of one neuron corresponds with the dendritic extension of another neuron
– Dendrites: afferent extensions of a neuron; receive/bring nerve impulses to the cell body
Synapse-
Myelin-
Myelinization-
Nervous System consists of:
- Synapse: miniscule space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next where chemical-electrical impulses jump
sites at which the axonal connection of one neuron corresponds with the dendritic extension of another neuron
Myelin: neuron coating
* particularly within white matter; protects the neuron; facilitates rapid relay of nerve impulses
- Myelinization: growth of the myelin sheath; slow process not
complete until late in childhood - Nervous system consists of:
– Brain
– Spinal cord
– Associated nerves & sense organs
~Cerebrum~
Divided into ____
Transverse fibers ____
Wrinkled appearance ____
Sensory and motor functions ____
Specialized functions ____
- The cerebrum is also divided into left and right hemispheres
– Transverse fibers connect the two hemispheres; the largest is the corpus callosum.
– The cortex has a wrinkled appearance caused by little
hills called gyri and valleys called fissures, or sulci. - Most sensory and motor functions in the cerebrum are contralateral.
– Two exceptions to this crossover are vision and hearing - For specialized functions such as language, the hemispheres are asymmetrical.
~Brain Function~
3 basic brain functions:
– Regulation (reticular formation)
* responsible for the energy level
* overall tone of the cortex
– enables you to monitor, evaluate, and flexibly adjust behavior for successful performance
– Processing (posterior cortical areas)
* controls information analysis
* coding
* storage
– Formulation process (frontal lobes)
* intentions
* programs for behavior
~Hemispheres~
RIGHT
- Holistic processing
- Visuospatial processing
– Perception & recognition of faces, pictures & photographs
* includes depth & orientation
in space - comprehension of
– speech prosody & affect
– metaphors & semantics
– complex linguistic &
ideation material
– environmental sounds (e.g.,
laughing, music)
– emotional language
~Hemispheres~
LEFT
- Sequential/step by step information
- Specializes in all language modalities
– oral
– visual
– written
– arithmeticcalculations – logic
~Language Comprehension~
Comprehension=
Auditory processing-
language decoding-
Begins with-
- Comprehension = auditory processing + language decoding and involves many areas of your brain working together
– Auditory processing
* incoming auditory signal
– Language decoding
* representational meaning and underlying concepts
- Begins with attention to stimuli
– If you do not attend you cannot process information which leads to language comprehension
Pathway of language comprehension
*Auditory signal –> brainstem –> Heschl’s gyrus –> temporal lobe –> Broca’s area –> Wernicke’s area –> angular gyrus & supramarginal gyrus
*Visual cortex –> angular gyrus –> Wernicke’s area
- Right hemisphere –> frontal lobe
- Hippocampus –> memory storage
Details of Pathway (right)
- Well-rehearsed, automatic speech seems to be processed and stored in the right hemisphere as whole units
- RIGHT hemisphere also interpretation of figurative and abstract language areas corresponding to Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in temporal lobe
- Limited word-recognition, semantic decoding & paralinguistic processing RIGHT hemisphere
- The right hemisphere may also work to suppress ambiguous or incompatible interpretations.
- Prior to storage, incoming information is transmitted to the hippocampus in the LEFT temporal lobe for consolidation.
- Pragmatic analysis & paralinguistic information from RIGHT hemisphere are integrated in the frontal lobe
~Attention~
Includes:
Orientation & Reaction:
Children have difficulty:
*Includes awareness of learning & active cognitive processing
Orientation & reaction:
– Orientation is the ability to sustain attention over time.
– Reaction refers to the amount of time required for an
individual to respond to a stimulus.
Children have difficulty
– allocating attention
– limited attention capacity
~Long Term Memory~
- Information is retained in LTM by rehearsal or repetition and by organization.
- Memory is best when it includes semantic interpretation and elaboration as well as relating information to your prior experience and existing knowledge.
- Information in LTM is stored at an unconscious level and must be brought to a conscious level in order to use it.
~Processing Models~
Top-down/ Bottom up:
Top-down:
Bottom-up:
- Top-down/ bottom up:
– bottom level of hierarchy makes few demands on
brain
– top level of hierarchy includes extraction & synthesis;
higher demands on cognitive processes
– we use both types simultaneously on the need - Top-down
– conceptually driven - Bottom-Up
– data driven
~Processing Models~
Passive/ Active:
Serial/ Parallel:
Passive/Active:
– Passive: based on
pattern recognition of information
* expectations
– Active: involves comparisons to
previously stored information
* world knowledge
- occur simultaneously
Serial/Parallel:
– serial: processes one
level then moves to the next until understood
* sound –> syllable –> word
-parallel: accesses
multiple levels at the same time
* underlying meanings and relationships
* occur simultaneously
~Executive Function~
Metacognition:
The ability to process information is not limitless.
- Language processing may be limited by the amount of incoming and stored language data, the demands of the task, and your available cognitive resources.
- As in any system, overloads decrease efficiency
Executive function allocates and coordinates mental resources.
-determines cognitive strategies and activities needed for a task and monitors feedback and outcomes in order to reallocate resources if necessary
- Metacognition, or your knowledge of your own cognitive and memory processes, can facilitate encoding and retrieval and the use of problem-solving strategies.
