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test 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

sexual selection

A

selection associated with reproduction

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2
Q

what does sexual selection do?

A

explains extreme traits of males and females

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3
Q

who came up with sexual selection?

A

darwin

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4
Q

strategy

A

a behavior (or physiology) that can be different from another

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5
Q

optimality approach (or argument)

A

identify the strategy with the highest reproductive success

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6
Q

differences between males and females

A

females make larger gametes that males
sexual chromosomes are not universal

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7
Q

gamete hypothesis

A

behavior depends on investment in gametes
(aka: sperm takes less energy to make compared to eggs)

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8
Q

sex table (all other things being equal)
gamete size
relative energy per gamete
reproductive success is limited by
care in offspring
total investment
usual sex role

A

gamete size: eggs large; sperm small
relative energy per gamete: eggs high; sperm low
reproductive success is limited by: number of eggs/young for female; number of mates for male
care in offspring: higher (more often) in females; lower (more often) in males
total investment: usually higher in females; usually lower in males
usual sex role: females are choosers; males are courters

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9
Q

sex table shows that

A

sexes have different priorities

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10
Q

parental investment

A

resources parents devote to reproduction

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11
Q

what do parents invest in during parental investment

A

gametes
care/protection of mates
parental care (caring for eggs/offspring)

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12
Q

what do the sexes’ different priorities depend on?

A

on the relative investment of resources to producing successful offspring

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13
Q

choosers

A

select among prospective mates

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14
Q

courters

A

try to persuade another to be its mate

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15
Q

___________ should be individuals that have lowest parental investment

A

courters

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16
Q

courters should try to court individuals (of the opposite sex) with the ____________ parental investment

A

highest

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17
Q

____________ should be the individuals that have the highest parental investment

A

choosers

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18
Q

when do sex roles reverse?

A

where males invest more/investment is higher

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19
Q

2 types of sexual selection

A

male-male competition and female choice

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20
Q

(sexual selection) male-male competition

A

males compete directly for mates/fertilization

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21
Q

(sexual selection) female choice

A

females choose among potential mates

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22
Q

(sexual selection) what does female choice lead to?

A

more elaborate males –> male ornamentation and display

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23
Q

hermaphrodite

A

produces both eggs and sperm

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24
Q

when mating, it’s better for a hermaphrodite to be _______ since they invest ______ and can invest into _____________ more

A

male; less; reproducing

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25
Q

hermaphrodite compromise

A

when hermaphrodites are both male and female at once, they both can mate at the same time by working out truce

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26
Q

self-fertilization

A

lowers genetic diversity and gives advantage when moved to a new environment since they don’t need other plants to reproduce

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27
Q

optimal strategies for males

A

keep females from mating with other males
convince (or force) more females to mate with you
remove/kill the sperm of other males that have already mated with a female you are mating with
sperm competition

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28
Q

(optimal strategies for males –> keep females from mating with other males)
strategies

A

guard her until she has her offspring/lay her eggs
plug her up after mating
injure/poison her or shorten her lifespan

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29
Q

infanticide

A

killing of babies when left alone unprotected

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30
Q

when does sperm competition evolve?

A

when females are promiscuous (mate with more than one male)

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31
Q

monogamous

A

one-lifetime/one at a time mating partner

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32
Q

promiscuous

A

high number of mating partners

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33
Q

alternative mating strategies (when primary ones don’t work)

A

sneaky copulator strategy
satellite male strategy

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34
Q

sneaky copulator strategy

A

males team up to court females

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35
Q

satellite male strategy

A

males that hang around males that are calling and when the woman comes to call, first male will jump on and mate with them

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36
Q

what is the goal of satellite male strategy

A

to breed and not let her reach other males

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37
Q

optimal strategies for females

A

female choice favors evolution of “honest signals” of male quality
mate with male with the best genes
get males to fight over access to you
mate with males other females prefer mating with
mate with males that give you more resources
mate with several males
keep males from giving resources to other females

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38
Q

good-genes theory

A

mate with the male carrying the best genes

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39
Q

how to tell which males have the best genes

A

have immune system alleles that differ from hers
have fewer parasites
have bigger/showier ornaments
provide resources to the female
beat other males in fights
waste their resources

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40
Q

mate copying

A

prefer males they see mating, even if less colorful

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41
Q

why does mate copying happen?

A

mating with other females –> male sexy –> sexy sons –> more grandchildren

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42
Q

nuptial gift

A

resources given to females at mating

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43
Q

spermatophore

A

packet of energy-rich ejaculate

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44
Q

sexual cannibalism

A

female eats male if they don’t cooperate

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45
Q

male choice

A

males choose among potential (courting) mates

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46
Q

female-female competition

A

females compete for male

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47
Q

what is an example of equal investment?

A

monogamy

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48
Q

T or F: true monogamy is rare

A

true

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49
Q

T or F: female-female pairs are not common

A

false; they are common

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50
Q

extra-pair copulation

A

both sexes sneak off to mate

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51
Q

naturalistic fallacy

A

“If it doesn’t happen in nature, it must be immoral” and “if it happens in nature, it must be morally defensible” –> It does happen in nature and nature isn’t defensible/doesn’t have to relate to humans

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52
Q

intelligent design’s assertion

A

some traits are too complicated to have arisen naturally, so some intelligent being must have created them

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53
Q

arguments for intelligent design’s assertion

A

some traits are really, really complicated (scientific assertion)
if you take any parts away, they won’t work (irreducibly complex)
scientists haven’t been able to explain how they evolve –> so they couldn’t have –> must have been designed and created

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54
Q

simple transformation series

A

observed series of (+/- gradual) stages from ancestral to present-day forms
(trait’s function stays the same)

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55
Q

plausibility argument (when fossil record is incomplete)

A

series of (+/- gradual) stages from ancestral to present-day forms
(trait’s function stays the same; more data –> more plausible)

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56
Q

(plausibility argument) what if early/intermediate stages are non-functional?

A

early stages can have a different function

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57
Q

functional shift

A

function changes as a trait evolves

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58
Q

(functional shift) Darwin’s idea

A

numerous cases have the same organ performing at the same time wholly distinct functions –> organ that completes 2 functions
2 distinct organs sometimes perform the same function in the same individual

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59
Q

(functional shift –> Darwin’s idea) what does natural selection do when an organ is performing 2 different functions?

A

might easily specialize a part or organ which had performed 2 functions before –> one function

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60
Q

(functional shift –> Darwin’s idea) what happens when 2 distinct organs perform the same function in the same individual?

A

one of the organs might be modified and performed so it can only perform the task alone, then the other organ might be modified for some other functions or die

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61
Q

did life originate in some ‘primordial soup’ of chemical building blocks and lightning strikes?

A

no

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62
Q

age of earth

A

~6.4 billion years old

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63
Q

oldest bit of crust (zircon crystals)

A

~4.37 billion years old

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64
Q

oldest rocks

A

~4.2 billion years old

65
Q

oldest fossil

A

3.456 billion years old

66
Q

around when did life originate

A

between first candidates and oldest fossil periods

67
Q

what is present day algae?

A

cyanobacteria

68
Q

when did cyanobacteria evolve sophisticated photosynthesis?

A

2.7 billion years ago

69
Q

when did the atmosphere reach high O2 concentration?

A

2.4 billion years ago

70
Q

T or F: free oxygen (O2) is toxic in cells

A

true

71
Q

what happens when proteins and many other molecules react with oxygen (O2)?

A

they oxidize and become denatured

72
Q

present day earth and O2

A

high environmental O2 concentration
“oxidizing environment” –> widespread O2 available to bind

73
Q

prebiotic earth and O2

A

low O2 environmental concentration
“reducing environment” –> O2 unavailable to bind

74
Q

energy sources before sunlight

A

deep sea vents

75
Q

deep sea vents were sources of “building blocks” for _____________, ___________, and ___________ _________

A

nucleotides; lipids; amino acids

76
Q

what leads to faster reactions?

A

warm (not hot) temperatures

77
Q

when the pH is low, what is high?

A

concentration

78
Q

what does LUCA stand for?

A

last universal common ancestor

79
Q

LUCA must have had

A

DNA
RNA with genetic code
proteins with 20 amino acids
plasma (cell) membrane
cell cycle (mitosis, cell division, etc)
biochemistry of complex metabolism (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, etc)

80
Q

most viruses don’t have …

A

DNA

81
Q

what is the hereditary material in viruses?

A

RNA

82
Q

what does RNA do in viruses?

A

catalyzes reactions
carries hereditary material
ribosomes and tRNAs –> protein synthesis

83
Q

what is a “small-subunit” ribosome made of?

A

2900 bases (A, U, C, G)

84
Q

(protein synthesis) what is a layered structure?

A

stable 220-base core
does protein synthesis (poorly)
core duplicated –> 110-base fragment

85
Q

(protein synthesis) tRNA

A

5-base RNA can do first step (bind to amino acids)
transcription –> done by protein synthesis (RNA polymerase)

86
Q

can RNA copying evolve?

A

yes; it can copy itself as well

87
Q

self catalyze

A

when small RNA’s copy RNA

88
Q

how many bases is the smallest RNA?

A

40 bases

89
Q

(artificial selective experiment) self-copying RNA will evolve to be more _________ in virtually all tubes, but _____ ___ in some tubes than others

A

efficient; more so

90
Q

(artificial selective experiment) what happens to self-copying RNA after 10 cycles?

A

longer length
copying more efficient
differently in each replicate

91
Q

(artificial selective experiment) what happens to self-copying RNA after 16 cycles?

A

shorter length
copying more efficient
differently in each replicate
original RNA fragment lost –> “irreducibly complex” –> evolved by selection

92
Q

RNA world hypothesis

A

pre-DNA period where RNA created hereditary material

93
Q

natural selection began as soon as RNA …..

A

began to self-catalyze

94
Q

why do some RNA molecules copy themselves better than others?

A

because of their nucleotide sequences

95
Q

T or F: nucleotide sequences differences are inherited

A

true

96
Q

(before RNA world –> plasma membrane) impermeable

A

contents don’t diffuse away

97
Q

(before RNA world –> plasma membrane) permeable

A

nutrients in and waste out

98
Q

(before RNA world) diverse channel protein job

A

allow nutrients in and waste out
each channel protein does different things – specific jobs for each

99
Q

why are membranes sophisticated systems?

A

they have to be permeable and impermeable at the same time

100
Q

what do you need to ideally build the building blocks?

A

low-energy reactions (environment not too extreme)

101
Q

what are big players in building building blocks?

A

H2O and HCN (hydrogen cyanide)

102
Q

what is formed when H2O and HCN are combined?

A

NH2CHO (formamide)

103
Q

what does formamide do?

A

combine to make bases (A, U, C, G)
with catalyst: formaldehyde (sugars)
with common mineral catalysts: amino acids and simple proteins

104
Q

once you have nucleotides, RNA assembly is …

A

easy with mineral catalysts

105
Q

where do nucleotides come from?

A

some self-assemble easily

106
Q

where did metabolism come from?

A

nutrients in –> energy extracted and used –> wastes out

107
Q

organisms need metabolism because it

A

acquires energy and nutrients
converts them to building blocks
assembles complex molecules
eliminates waste products

108
Q

outside membrane has ______ concentration and inside membrane has ______ concentration

A

low; high

109
Q

membranes _______ flow in and out of cell

A

block

110
Q

what controls the flow of nutrients in and out of the cell?

A

proteins

111
Q

astrobiologists

A

people that study the origin of life

112
Q

family hominidae –> ___________ –> great apes

A

hominids

113
Q

subfamily homininae –> _________ –> bipedal hominids

A

hominins

114
Q

evolutionary tree of the hominins

A

Sahrleanthropus → ardipithecus → australopithecus → homo

115
Q

when did Sahelanthropus evole?

A

~ 7 mya

116
Q

when did Ardipithecus evolve?

A

~5 mya

117
Q

bipedalism

A

opposable toes

118
Q

T or F: human-chimp ancestors looked like chimps

A

false

119
Q

when did bipedalism form?

A

during ardipithecus

120
Q

features of australopithecus

A

flat, human-like foot
everything besides external features are well known based on reconstruction

121
Q

what was Lucy?

A

an australopithecus

122
Q

when did austrolpithecus garnhi evolve?

A

~2.6 mya

123
Q

when did homo evolve?

A

~2 mya

124
Q

what was so special about homo?

A

they were the first to have a large brain –> large brain size evolves

125
Q

large brains become possible when …

A

meat becomes a bigger part of diet

126
Q

what percentage of adult metabolism supports the brain?

A

25%

127
Q

what independently evolved from australopithecus?

A

homo nadeli; homo floresiensis; homo luzonensis

128
Q

what do homo nadeli, homo floresiensis, and homo luzonensis have in common?

A

smaller brains
different foot structure –> flat feet

129
Q

when did homo nadeli evolve?

A

~350-250k years ago

130
Q

what evolved in the last 800k years?

A

homo sapiens, homo neandethalensis ( → denisovans and neanderthals), homo altai

131
Q

neanderthals

A

Eastern (AS) /western (EU) neanderthals (Switzerland)
Lived from ~400k-35k years ago
DNA based phylogeny
Had pale skin and red hair

132
Q

denisovans

A

Known from only a few teeth and small bones
DNA reveals alleles for dark skin
lived in ~400k-70k years ago
From cave called Denisova

133
Q

DNA sequences of humans, neanderthals and denisovans show

A

ancient human species interbred
modern human chromosomes carry small pieces of other species’ DNA

134
Q

introgression

A

leakage of genes of one species into another

135
Q

how many cases were there of interbreeding in early humans?

A

at least 6

136
Q

T or F: there are NO pure humans

A

true

137
Q

effect neanderthals had on modern humans

A

east and central asians and europeans come from neanderthals
~1.5-3% neanderthal DNA in europeans

138
Q

what do the introgressed alleles in neanderthals do?

A

deleterious –> risks increase for: heart disease, skin cancer, depression
beneficial: pathogen resistance; more expected

139
Q

effects denisovans had on modern humans

A

East and central Asians, Europeans, Australians and New Guineans → denisovans
~1.5-6% denisovan DNA in diverse humans

140
Q

what do the introgressed alleles in denisovans do?

A

beneficial: protects against hypoxia (low O2) in high Himalayans; speculation about possible deleterious alleles

141
Q

what is the maximum number of human species that coexisted on Earth?

A

at least 7

142
Q

mitochondria

A

have their own DNA
inherited from mother via egg

143
Q

what is the name of mitochondria DNA?

A

mtDNA

144
Q

Y chromosomes

A

inherited via father only

145
Q

there is a ______ diversity of human mtDNA in Europe and Asia

A

high

146
Q

where could patterns from different groups of mtDNA on different continents come from?

A

natural selection (likely but not confirmed)
genetic drift
mutation
gene flow

147
Q

where did the first ancestors of all modern humans live?

A

africa

148
Q

mitochondrial Eve

A

woman who carried common ancestor of all humans’ mtDNA

149
Q

mitochondrial eve had ____ daughters; one of them carried a ___________

A

2; mutation

150
Q

______ diversity of Y-chromosomes in Europe and Asia

A

huge

151
Q

where did Y chromosome variants start?

A

Africa; then spread to rest of world

152
Q

Y-chromosome Adam

A

man who carried common ancestor of all living mens’ Y chromosome

153
Q

Y-chromosome Adam had __ sons; one of them carried a __________

A

2; mutation

154
Q

difference between mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosome Adam are not so ____________ _____________

A

statistically different

155
Q

T or F: mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosome Adam could have easily lived at different times in different places

A

true

156
Q

is “evolution is just a theory, so it may or may nor be true” a common misunderstanding?

A

yes

157
Q

scientist to scientist theory definition

A

1) a mathematical analysis of the logic that underlies a complex explanation
2) a set of explanations that is supported by logic and fully tested by observations and experiments

158
Q

if there are holes in a theory, then the theory is

A

incomplete

159
Q

T or F: there has never been an observation in biology that is inconsistent with evolutionary theory

A

true

biology 109 (3 decks)

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