Test 2.2 Terms Flashcards
allomorph
and examples
variations of morphemes; different forms of the same morpheme or basic unit of meaning, different pronunciations or spellings
(s) has 3 morphemes
- s as in judges
- z as in dogz
- əz as in boxəz
minimal pairs
and example
two words with different meanings that are identical except for one that occurs in the same place in each word
- ex. cab and cap
we can assume allomorph is selected based on final sounds of the mouns caps vs cabz
phonemes
basic unit of sound and are sensed in your mind rather than spoken or heard
allophones
actual sound being produced in various enviornments
illustration of allophones
- vowels are nasalized before a nasal consonant w/in the same word (nasalized vowels do not change meaning)
- consonants also have allophones
tick, /tIk/, [t^h I k]
complementary distributions
allophones of a phoneme never occur in the same enviornment
- the replacement of one sound for another will not change the meaning of the word
phones
sounds
- complementary distribution alone is not sufficient to determine the allophones of a phoneme. The phones much also be phonetically similar; that is share most phonetic features
distinctive phonemic feature
when a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another
feature value
two values [+feature] [-feature] to indicate presence or absence of a feature
- ex. b [+voiced] p [-voiced]
nondistinctive
when a feature is predictable by a rule for a certain class of sounds
- ex. aspiration is a nondistinctive feature for voiceless stops in english
can the same phones occur in two languages?
yes, but pattern differently because phonologies of the language are different
ex. aspiration is not distinctive in english but is distinctive in Thai
Natural classes of sounds
a group of sounds described by a small number of distinctive features
The three rules of phonology
- phonemic representation of a word
- phonetic representation (rule-governed)
- feature-changing rules
Feature Changing rules
assimilation rules:
- coarticulation
assimilation rules: a rules that makes neighboring segments more similar by duplicating a phonetic property
- coarticulation: reflected in assimilation, the spreading of phonetic features either in anticipation or in the preservation of articulatory processes
Feature changing rules:
dissimilation rules
dissimilation rules: a segment becomes less like another segment
insertion and deletion rules
add or delete entire segments
epenthesis
adding a segment
- ex. plurals, possessives etc
deletion
deleting a segment
- ex. memory -> memry
Phonological rules provide…
the phonetic information necessary for the pronunciation of utterances
Derivation
the way the phonological rules apply to the underlying phonemic representations to create the phonetic representation
syllables
phonological units composed of one or more phonemes
nucleus
every syllable has one, may preceed or follow by one or more phonemes called the onset and coda
rime
nucleus+coda
phrasal stress
when words are combines into phrases and sentences, one syllable recieves more stress than others
- can distinguish a compound noun from an adjective + noun combo
contrastive tones
when pitch is a phonemic feature
pitch contour/intonation
used to distinguish questions from statements, can also disambiguate sentences
phonotactic constraints
limitations on sequences of segment
- based on syllables and vary from language to language
lexical gaps
words that don’t exist in a language but could exist because they conform to the phonotactic constraints of the language
optimality theory
proposed that a universal set of phonological constraints exists and that this set is ordered with some constraints begin more highly ranked
how do you determine phonemes and allophones in a language other than english?
- are there any minimal pairs in the data in which these sounds contrast?
- Are any noncontrastive sounds in complementary distribution?
- If nonconstrasting phones are found, what are the underlying phonemes and their allophones
- What are the phonological rules by which the allophones can be derived?
Suprasegmental features
intonation patterns, stress placement, and rhythm in spoken languages
Prosodic Phonology
study of the tune and rhythm of speech and how these features contribute to meaning
Can a word have syllable with stress?
yes, this occurs in many languages
in english=leads to differences in pronunciation
idolect
language of an individual speaker with its unique characteristics
dialect
mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic wats
dialect continuum
formed when dialects merge into each other
dialect leveling
movement towards greater uniformity and less variation among dialects
regional dialect
a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country
accent
a way of pronouncing a language that is distincitve to a country, area, social class, or individual
phonological differences
systmatic pronunciation differences between dialects
- south, northeast, midland
Mary, marry, merry
caught. vs cot
Pin vs Pen
Lexical differences
different words for the same meaning
ex. british-lift
american-elevator
syntactic differences and example
differences in syntax
ex. double modals (he might should go home)
double objects (I caught me a fish)
progressives (he came a-runnin’)
all examples of Appalachian English
Dialect Atlases
plot dialect difference geographically
dialect areas
concentrations of linguistic difference
isoglosses
lines drawn on dialect atlases to separate areas
social dialects
dialects associates with gender, socioeconomic status, religion, race, and ethnicity, and country of origin
The “standard”
standard american english is the dominant dialect in america
Prestige
language with most power or that is the most normal
hypercorrect
overfixing a language to use the dominant language and seem more prestigious
banned languages
languages banned on false notion that some languages are better than other or for political control
african american english
social dialect spoken by a large population of americans of african descent
phonological differences between AAE and SAE
- R-deletion except before a vowel
- consonant Cluster reduction: may simplify consonant clusters particularly at end of words and when one consonant is alveolar
- neutralization of [I] and [E] before nasals
- Diphthong reduction: diphthong [ɔj] to [ɔ]
- loss of interdental fricatives: changes interdental fricative to other fricative or stops
syntactic difference in AAC and SAE
- multiple negatives
- deletion of “be”
- Habitual “be”
- “there” replacement: replaces “there” with “its” in positive sentences and “don’t” or “ain’t” in negative setences
Chicano english
a dialect in english spoken by many Mexican Americans
Phonological variables of ChE
- uses 5 vowels of spanish not 6 vowels used in English
- affricate [ʈʃ] and fricative [ʃ] are interchanged
- word-final consonant cluster reduction: he loves her-> he love her
- add a vowel before words that begin with an [s]: school -> eschool
syntactic variables of ChE
- multiple negatives
lexical differences of ChE
ChE: borrow SAE: lend
ChE: barely SAE: just
Genderlects
speech variety or communication style particularly associated with one sec
- languages can have different words or grammar based on sex
women speaking features
- hedges
- tag questions
- politeness words
- use of intensifies
sociolinguistic analysis (labov)
r-dropping and its use of upper, middle, and lower class individuals and employees at department stores
-/r/ most pronounced among upper class
lingua francas
language common to speaker of diverse languages that can be used for communication and commerce
- english is used in academic conferences
- Swahili in eastern africa
pidgin
new language creates through different languages coming together from trade, colonization, or immigration
superstrate/lexifier language
dominant language where most vocabulary comes from
substrate language
other languages that contribute to grammatical systems
pidginization
over simpliciation of some language and a reduction of the number of domains of its use
creolization
the expansion of a lexicon and grammar and an increase of the number of contexts of use
creole
a language that has evolved in a context situation to become the native language of a generation of speakers
Bilingualism
the ability too speak two or more languages
individual bilingualism
within one person
societal bilingualism
within a society
ex. canada and switzerland
codeswitching
speech style in which fluent speakers switch languages between or within sentences
- follows its own grammatical structure
synthetic approach
stressed the teaching of grammatical, lexical, phonological, and functional unites of the language step by step
grammatical translation
method focuses on learning lists of words and rules and translates text
analytic approach
assumes that adult can extract the rules of language from unstructured output like a child does with 1st language aquisition
content based instruction
focuses on making language meaningful and getting student to communicant in the language
Teaching Reading: whole-word approach
teaches children to recognize 50 t0 100 words through wrote leaning and the other words are learned gradually
Teaching Reading: phonics
emphasized the correspondence between letters and sounds so kids cna sound out words, nut there are many inconsistencies with English Spelling
Teaching Reading: whole language approach
assumes that children approach reading as a natural activity that children will do on their own like speaking and focuses on encouraging children to make their own connections between letters and sounds as they explore texts
Bilingual education: transitional bilingual education
students receive instruction in both their native language and English with the native language support being phased out over the years
Bilingual Education: Bilingual Maintenance
student remain in bilingual classes for their entire education
Bilingual Education: Dual language immersion
native and non native speakers are enrolled in bilingual education, the goal being to have all students become bilingual
Styles
different ways tfo speaking based on context
slang
something that nearly everybody uses and can recognize but nobody can precisely define
Jargon and Argot
specialized terms used in various occupations
Taboo
words that are dirty although there is nothing intrinsically dirty or offensive wrong with it
- often multiple terms with the same meaning with one being accepted and one being taboo
euphemism
word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or to avoid unpleasant subjects
denotative meaning
referential meaning of the word or expression
connotative meaning
the evocative or affective meaning assoicated with the word
- two words or expressions may have the same denotative meaning but different connotation (ex. president and commandar-in-chief)
Epithets
used for people of different religions, races, nationalities, sexual orientations and ethnicities tell us something about the speaker or writer who uses those terms
- can be prejudice or racial terminology
gendered offensive terms
women- pussy whore piece of ass
men- jock, boy toy
marked and unmarked wording when referring to humans
marked: anything relating to women (heiress)
unmarked: anything relating to men (heir)
secret languages and language games
invented to help identify with a group and to prevent outsiders from understanding
Nushu secret language
secret written language used by women in sexual repressive imperial china
Walbiri language game
in australia; language game in which nouns, verb, pronouns and adjectives are replaced by semantically contrastive words
