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Biology 211 > Test 2 Vocab > Flashcards

Test 2 Vocab Flashcards

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1
Q

cells

A

fundamental units of life

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2
Q

cell theory

A

scientific theory that the cell is the basic unit of life, of which all liveing things are composed, and that all cells are derived from pre-existing cells

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3
Q

nucleoid

A

in Prokaryotice cells, not nucleus but the unbound region of DNA

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4
Q

cytosol

A

semi fluid substance inside the cell

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5
Q

ribosomes

A

complexes that make proteins according to instructions from the genes

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6
Q

lysosomes

A

digestive organelles where macromolecules are hydrolyzed

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7
Q

centrioles

A

centrioles microtubules are activated here and help with cell division

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8
Q

flagella

A

a long, whiplike structure extending from certain cells and used in locomotion (present in some plant sperm)

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9
Q

chloroplast

A

photosynthetic organelle, converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules

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10
Q

central vacuole

A

functions to storage, breakdown of waste, plant growth, and hydrolisis of macromolecules

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11
Q

cell wall

A

composed of cellulose, helps maintain cell shape and provides protection, and helps prevent excess water uptake (bacteria, fungi, and plant cells have cell walls)

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12
Q

plasmodesmata

A

(“plasma binded”) cytoplasmic channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells

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13
Q

plasma (cell) membrane

A

functions: selectively permeable, physical barrier, communication , structural support; amphipathic; and also contains proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins and glycolipids

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14
Q

amphipathic

A

both hydrophilic (water loving) and hydrophobic (water fearing)

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15
Q

cytoplasm

A

the material between the nucleus and plasma membrane of the cell

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16
Q

organelles

A

metabolic machinery of the cell; “little organs” that preform functions for the cell

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17
Q

inclusions

A

not in all cell cytoplasm; chemical substances such as stored nutrients or cell products; e.g. lipid droplets common in fats cells, melanin pigment in skin and hair cells

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18
Q

nucleus

A

membrane bound organelle located near the center of most cells; functions as the control center of the cell (contains genetic material (DNA), gives/receives info regarding all cellular processes, and site of DNA and RNA synthesis

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19
Q

nucleolus

A

nucleus contains one or more nucleoli; sites of ribosomes assembly and rRNA synthesis

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20
Q

chromatin

A

composed of DNA and protein; present when the cell is not dividing; scattered throughout the nucleus; condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides

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21
Q

mitochondria

A

(“powerhouse” of the cell) double membrane bound organelle that produces ATP; site of aerobic respirations (carbohydrates and oxygen converted to ATP energy and carbon dioxide); contains two different compartments, both are part of the inner mitochondrial membrane (matrix and cristae: sites of ATP synthesis)

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22
Q

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

the cell’s “factory”; fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances; manufactures, packages, and distributes in transport vesicles; part of the endomembrane system

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23
Q

endomembrane system

A

which include the nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles and vacuoles; this system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

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24
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A

studded with ribosomes which synthesize proteins and dump into RER lumen (space) for further processing

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25
Q

ribosomes

A

made of protein and rRNA; sites of protein synthesis-read mRNA and assemble proteins; found at two locations: free in the cytoplasm and as part of the RER

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26
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

A

makes lipids (phospholipids, fatty acids, and steroids) and carbohydrates

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27
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

A

makes lipids (phospholipids, fatty acids, and steroids) and carbohydrates; contains enzymes that detoxify chemicals; storage of calcium ions in muscle cells

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28
Q

golgi apparatus

A

the “UPS” of the cell; contains stacks of flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae; receives molecules from the ER and processes, sorts, modifies packages, and ships them; produces different types of packages: secretory vesicles, cell membrane components, and lysosomes

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29
Q

lysosomes

A

the cell’s “garbage disposal”; synthesized in the golgi apparatus and bud from the Golgi; contain enzymes produced by ribosomes; digest nutrients, bacteria, damaged organelles, ect.

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30
Q

perosisomes

A

membranous sacs of enzymes, break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons) that are produced from the metabolism of lipids (convert to hydrogen peroxide then convert to water by catalose); detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde

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31
Q

vacuoles

A

storage “sacs”; large, fluid-filled enclosed membrane derived from ER and Golgi apparatus; types: food, central, and contractile

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32
Q

cytoskeleton

A

network of protein structures that extend throughout the cytoplasm giving mechanical strength, shape and flexibility; three different types of elements: microfilaments (smallest), intermediate filaments (internal wires to help resist pulling forces on the cell), microtubles (largest, hallow tubes made of globular protein tubilin that determind the overall shape)

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33
Q

microvilli

A

tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane with a core of actine microfilaments; increase surface area for absorption; found on intestinal and kidney tubule cells

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34
Q

cilia

A

numerous, short hair-like projections made of microtubules; move material across the cell surgace thus commonly associated with goblet cells; located in the respiratory bronchi and uterine tubes, on the protist paramecium

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35
Q

flagella

A

long, whip-like structure made of microtubules; propels the cell; found on sperm

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36
Q

selective permeability

A

allows some substances to cross more easily than others

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37
Q

fluid mosaic (collage)

A

phospholipids and some proteins move laterally; as temperature cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state (depends on the types of lipids, unsaturated versus saturated fatty acid); steroid cholesterol within the animal cell membrane (at warm temps, cholesterol restains movement where cool temps prevents tight packing)

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38
Q

peripheral proteins

A

bound to the surface, not embedded in the lipid bilayer

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39
Q

integral proteins

A

penetrate the hydrophobic core; hydrophobic regions consist of one or more stretches of nonpolar amino acids; majority of integral proteins are transmembrane proteins that span the membrane

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40
Q

transport proteins

A

allow passage of hydrophilic substances; transport protein is specific for the substances it moves

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41
Q

channel proteins

A

have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel

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42
Q

aquaporins

A

protein channels that facilitate the passage of water

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43
Q

carrier proteins

A

bind to molecules, change shape to shuttle them

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44
Q

solution

A

homogeneous mixture of two or more components

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45
Q

solvent

A

dissolving medium; typically water in an organism, substance present in large ammount in a solutions

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46
Q

solute

A

what is being dissolved, substance present in small amount

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47
Q

passive transport

A

substances are moved down their concentration gradient across the membrane without any energy input from the cell

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48
Q

concentration gradient

A

a region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases; substances move “downhill” with the gradient from high concentration (more molecules of solute) to low concentrations (less molecules of solute)

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49
Q

simple diffusion

A

the unassisted movement of solutes across the cell membrane from high to low concentration (goal is dynamic equilibrium)

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50
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

passive transport aided by proteins; carrier proteins and channel proteins

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51
Q

osmosis

A

the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; water diffuses across the membrane from the region of lower solute concentration to that of higher solute concentration until solute concentrations on both sides of membrane are equal

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52
Q

osmotic pressure

A

the tendency of a solution to pullwater into it (is directly related to the concentration of solutes in the solutions); the higher the solute concentration the greater the osmotic pressure and the greater the tendency of water to move into the solution

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53
Q

Tonicity

A

ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

54
Q

Hypotonic

A

less solute; Net movement of water from hypotonic

environment to hypertonic environment

55
Q

Isotonic

A

equal solute; No NET movement of water across the plasma membrane

56
Q

Hypertonic

A

more solute; Net movement of water from hypotonic

environment to hypertonic environment

57
Q

bioenergetics

A

study of how enegy flows through living systems

58
Q

energy

A

capacity to do work

59
Q

work

A

to move matter against opposing forces

60
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy of motion; heat/thermarl energy-KE associated with the radom movement of atoms and molecules

61
Q

potential energy

A

energy of position, stored energy; chemical energy-PE of a chemical bond

62
Q

thermodynamics

A

study of energy and its transformations

63
Q

systems

A

the matter under study

64
Q

surrounding

A

everything outside the system (the rest of the universe)

65
Q

open systems

A

exchanges energy with the environment; eg biological systems

66
Q

isolated/closed systems

A

no exchange of energy with the environment; eg thermos

67
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy of the universe is constant. energy connot be created or destroyed, only transformed. aka the law of conseration of energy

68
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe

69
Q

entropy

A

measure of disorder or randomness

70
Q

spontaneous processes

A

a process that can occur without energy input; “energetically favorable” process; does NOT imply process would occur quickly; eg diffusion

71
Q

metabolism

A

the sum of all chemical reactions that enable an organism to carry out its activities

72
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a specific molecule altered through a series of steps resulting in a product; each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme; membranes help organize these reactions

73
Q

catabolic reation (catabolism)

A

larger molecules are broken down to smaller molecules; break bonds

74
Q

anabolic reactions (anabolism)

A

reactions where larger molecules are synthesized from smaller molecules; make bonds

75
Q

free energy (ΔG)

A

energy free to do “useful” work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell

76
Q

entropy (ΔS)

A

change in a system’s entropy

77
Q

enthalpy (ΔH)

A

the total chemical potential energy of a system

78
Q

exergonic reactions

A

downhill, spontaneous, hydrolysis; reaction in which the bonds in the products have less free than the bonds in the reactants; releases energy (lower free energy) and is spontaneous; example: diffusion, cell respiration, catabolism; ΔG is negative (reactants have more free energy than the products)

79
Q

endergonic reaction

A

uphill, dehydrations, nonspontaneous ; reaction in which the bonds in the products have more free energy than the reactants; nonspontaneous, need an input of energy to get them going (free energy increases); example: photosynthesis, anabolism; ΔG is positive (reactants have less free energy)

80
Q

chemical work

A

type of work that cells do; example:endergonic reaction, require free energy, eg synthesis of polymers from monomers

81
Q

transport work

A

type of work that cells do; pumping of substance against a concentration gradient

82
Q

mechanical work

A

type of work that cells do; beating of cilia, muscle contraction, movement of DNA

83
Q

energy coupling

A

use exergonic process to drive an endergonic; usually mediated by ATP

84
Q

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

A

chemical compound (nucleotide) that packages energy; composed of ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups

85
Q

enymes

A

ASE; biological catalysts; speeds up the rates of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy; organic catalysts generally made of protein

86
Q

catalyst

A

a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

87
Q

activation energy (Ea)

A

initial energy needed to start chemical reaction

88
Q

substrate

A

the reactant an enzyme acts on; combination of enzyme + substrate is called enzyme-substrate complex

89
Q

active site

A

region on enzyme where a substrate binds; test: active site can lower an Ea barrier by-orientating substrates correctly, straining substrates bonds, providing a favorable microenvironment, covalently bonding to the substrate

90
Q

induced fit

A

enzyme changes shape slightly when it binds the substrate; brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction

91
Q

optimum temperature

A

temperature at which the enzyme works best and has the greatest turnover rate; different cells or organisms may have enzymes with different optimum temperatures

92
Q

optimum pH

A

the pH at which the enzyme works best; proteins are held together by ionic interactions that are affected by changing the pH of the solution that surrounds them; different enzymes have different

93
Q

cofactors

A

non-protein molecules (eg metal atoms) necessary for enzyme function

94
Q

coenzymes

A

a non-protein organic cofactors (eg vitamins)

95
Q

inhibitor

A

substances which reduce the effectiveness of enzymes

96
Q

reversible inhibition

A

inhibitor forms weak chemical bonds with enzyme thus can restore function

97
Q

competitive inhibition

A

inhibitor competes with normal substrate for binding to active site

98
Q

noncompetitive inhibition

A

inhibitor binds to sites other than active sites

99
Q

irreversible inhibition

A

permanent inactivation of enzymes through forming stable bonds or denaturation; example mercury and led

100
Q

denaturation

A

changing proteins native shape

101
Q

allosteric regulation of enzymes

A

any case in which a protein’s function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site

102
Q

cooperativity regulation of enzymes

A

binding of one substrate molecule primes binding or activity at other active sites

103
Q

enzyme pathways (cascades)

A

the product of one enzyme will affect activity of another

104
Q

negative feedback inhibition

A

the end product of a metabolic pathway allosterically inhibits the enzyme for a previous step in the pathway

105
Q

Catabolism

A

Breakdown of larger molecules

106
Q

Fermentation

A

A partial breakdown of sugars that occurs without O2

107
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Complete breakdown of sugars in the presence of O2

108
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration

109
Q

Redox reaction

A

Aka oxidation reduction reaction; chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants; LEO goes GER (loose electron oxidation and gain electron reduction)

110
Q

Oxidation

A

A substance loses electrons or is oxidized

111
Q

Reduction

A

A substance gains electrons or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced)

112
Q

Reducing agent

A

Electron donor

113
Q

Oxidizing agent

A

Electron acceptor

114
Q

Dehydrogenase

A

An enzyme that removes a pair of hydrogen Atoms

115
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose——>two pyruvate (3-C); harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate

116
Q

Formation of acetyl-coenzyme A

A

Pyruvate—-> acetyl-CoA

117
Q

Citric acid (Krebs Cycle)

A

Acetyl-CoA—>electron carriers, completes the breakdown of glucose to CO2

118
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

Production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain

119
Q

Preparatory phase (energy investment phase)

A

Energy consumed; glucose is stable, an investment of ATP is needed to get the reaction going

120
Q

Phosphorylation

A

A phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose, the bond of glucose break and it is rearranged through. Series of 3 steps

121
Q

Dehydrogenation

A

G3P is oxidized by enzymes dehydrogenase to reduce NAD+

122
Q

Decarboxylation

A

The removal of CO2 from a molecule

123
Q

Electron transport chain (ETC)

A

Chain of proteins and other molecules; it is located in the inner membrane (cristales) of the mitochondrion (in eukaryotes); locates in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes

124
Q

Proton-motive forcé

A

H+ gradient (created by ETC) across the membrane

125
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

Use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work

126
Q

ATP synthase

A

A special protein that H+ moves back across the membrane down their concentration gradient through

127
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Uses an ETC with a final electron acceptor other than O2

128
Q

Fermentation

A

Incomplete break down of glucose

129
Q

Alcohol fermentation

A

Pyruvate is reduced by NADH, releasing CO2 forming ethanol

130
Q

Lactic acidosis fermentation

A

Pyruvate is released by NADH, forming lactate as an end product; no release of CO2

Biology 211 (6 decks)

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